A BRIEF HISTORY OF VIRTUAL REALITY AND ITS SOCIAL APPLICATIONSSamuel
Ebersole
IntroductionIt has been nearly five years since the Journal of Communication devoted an entire issue to a subject that was, "too important, too wondrous, too powerful, to permit continued disciplinary ignorance" (Levy, 1992, p. 3). [1] Virtual reality-the very name conjures up fantastic visions of computer technology providing the ultimate out-of-body experience. Few communications technologies have captured the imagination of the public as has virtual reality (henceforth, VR). For some researchers of VR technology, the quest for simulated experience that approaches the "real" has become their "Holy Grail." [2] Benedikt, in the introduction to Cyberspace: First Steps, declared that the technology of VR "stands at the edge of practicality and at the current limit of the effort to create a communication/communion medium that is both phenomenologically engulfing and yet all but invisible" (1991, p. 11). But just what is VR? And what can we learn from studying the history of its development and the development of its early and present-day applications? The history of modern VR is the history of the technology that makes it possible-the computer, the head-mounted display, and the data glove. It is also the history of the people and organizations that developed the technology, hardware and software, and applications for that technology. And finally, the history of VR is a history of the social use of VR technology for entertainment, education, military, and commercial purposes. In this paper I will briefly address the first two topics and conclude by addressing the final issue in greater detail. Defining VRDefining VR is an important first step in presenting a brief history of its development. It may also prove to be the most difficult since the combination of the two terms is itself oxymoronic. [3] Other attempts to label this phenomenon, (e.g., virtual environments, artificial reality, and augmented reality), have been equally problematic. So before tackling the difficult notion of virtual reality perhaps it is best to begin with the individual terms themselves. In the early 1960s the term "virtual" began to emerge within the computer industry to signify something that appeared to exist without actually existing, e.g., virtual memory. The concept of reality raises several of philosophy's quintessential questions. Plato had the ideal Form, and Kant the phenomena. Enlightenment philosophers questioned whether anything existed apart from a reality that was observable and measurable, a concept later developed more fully by the logical positivists. Others questioned whether we could truly trust our senses or whether reality was knowable at all. More recently, Baudrillard's "hyperreality" raised questions about an artificial reality that becomes preferable to the real, thus creating a society of spectators. The phrase "virtual reality" is widely credited to Jaron Lanier who coined it in 1989 to describe the experience made possible by the use of the latest generation of goggles, gloves and related technologies. [4] Much of the research and popular press coverage has focused on the technology of VR and the hardware that makes it possible. [5] According to Krueger, "Virtual Reality is an alternate world filled with computer-generated images that respond to human movements. These simulated environments are usually visited with the aid of an expensive data suit which features stereophonic video goggles and fiber-optic data gloves" (1991, p. xiii). Richard Blade, editor-in-chief of the International Journal of VR and chair of the IEEE committee for the Recommended Practice for Terminology-Definition of Terms for Virtual Reality, supports a definition that encompasses both the technology and the user's experience (personal communication, April 23, 1997). Jonathan Steuer, founder and principle of Cyborganic media, argued in his 1992 Journal of Communication article that technology-based definitions were not very useful and preferred to focus instead on the nature of the VR experience-in particular on the notions of "presence" and "telepresence" (p. 75). Steuer's definition of VR as, "a real or simulated environment in which a perceiver experiences telepresence" (pp. 76-77) builds on his definition of telepresence as, "a mediated perception of an environment" (p. 76). [6] In order to move beyond Steuer's broad definition, one that could be applied to a wide variety of mediated experience, some would suggest that the concept of VR encompasses several additional and essential qualities; i.e., simulation, immersion, and interaction. Simulation is the use of computer technology to create artificial visual, auditory, and tactile worlds. [7] Immersion, what Steuer calls "vividness," fills the user's senses with this artificial graphical and auditory world. [8] And, finally, interaction allows the user to manipulate that world. Interaction may be facilitated by the computer program, e.g., allowing the user to navigate through the virtual space, or it may be provided by communication with another autonomous agent (another person) sharing the same virtual space. Technologies and services that achieve one or even two of these qualities may use the "virtual" label without fully qualifying as "virtual reality." For example, the virtual university allows students to interact with course materials, instructors, and classmates via computer thus simulating a classroom experience. Likewise virtual banking allows individuals to carry out transactions on-line without the need to be physically present in the banking facility. VR "rides" at amusement theme parks employ dazzling visuals and other forms of sensory stimulation, but with little or no interactivity. And finally, the telephone provides a sort of virtual travel wherein the body remains in physical space while the callers meet in telephonic cyberspace. Popular TrendsThe history of VR has been recent and sudden. While components have been in development for nearly forty years, working VR systems have only recently appeared on the scene. According to Chesher, "Virtual Reality developed from fiction in 1984 to a rich discourse and a marketed technology by 1992" (n.p.). The popular fascination with VR has existed for less than a decade. Milestones in the popularization of VR
A Pre-computer History of VR
Philosophical discussions of reality have ancient origins. In book VII of Plato's Republic, the cave analogy is used to explore the nature of truth and reality. The implications of this analogy for VR experiences were noted by Zettl (1996) who questioned our "returning to Plato's cave in order to become perceptual prisoners" (p. 85). [9] In The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality, Michael Heim provided an interesting summary of the question of the "real" in history.
The development of mass media raised even more questions about the nature of reality in light of mediated events-what Boorstin (1961) called "pseudo-events." In the forward to The Image: Or What Happened to the American Dream, Boorstin wrote, "I do not know what 'reality' really is. But somehow I do know an illusion when I see one" (p. vii). [10] Gozzi (1995) reflected on the meaning of VR and concluded that the mass media create a "virtual reality" that exists in our collective social consciousness. The stories presented in and on the news create an abstraction or distortion of the real world in which we live.
The role of perception in defining reality raises interesting issues of psychological, sociological, philosophical, and cognitive origins. Just how real, for example, are mental constructs or even sensory perceptions? In Heidegger and Virtual Reality: The Implications of Heidegger's Thinking for Computer Representations, Richard Coyne (1994) addressed the two different approaches that human computer interaction (HCI) and VR researchers have taken to explain perception; the "data-oriented" and the "constructivist views." According to Coyne, the data-oriented view assumes that the achievement of immersive VR is accomplished by increasing the quantity and quality of data streams to the human sensory organs. Those holding to the constructivist position would argue that immersion can be accomplished with much more limited sensory input, as long as the mind is engaged in the process of "constructing" the reality. An example of this approach can be found in, The Production of Reality, by Kollock and O'Brien (1994). [11] The authors take a symbolic interactionist approach to explain how reality is constructed and negotiated through human interaction and communication. Because the reality created by VR is based on the transmission of symbols in an interactive environment, symbolic interactionism may provide a useful schema for its analysis. [12] Anecdotal evidence based on the experiences of those who have participated in text-based VR environments (e.g., MUDs and MOOs) [13] would lend support to the constructivist approach. On the other hand, testimonies provided by those who have had the opportunity to don full-immersion VR gear would suggest that these technologies clearly augment the mind's ability to enter virtual "realities." In this postmodern age the concept of the real continues to have philosophical and practical significance for those who are engaged in the creation of artificial or virtual representations of reality. For some, the dawn of virtual reality was a necessary response to a world that was insufficiently stimulating. Their motto, "Reality isn't enough anymore," was a call to explore uncharted territory and new social spaces. [14] According to Brenda Laurel, "Reality has always been too small for the human imagination. We're always trying to transcend" (quoted in McCarthy, 1993). Since the beginning of time people have transcended time and space with little more than their imaginations. Artificial experiences have long relied on the generative ability of the human imagination. Some basic external stimulation, e.g., a story delivered orally by a campfire or later through the medium of the printed page, was more than enough to transport the listener/reader to far-away places and through time. All of us have been so captured at one time or another by an engaging book, mesmerizing photograph, or sense-filling motion picture. While these experiences reveal the mind's ability to suspended reality, the burden of creating this state falls squarely on the individual's ability to form a mental construct. Advances in Mediated RealityRheingold (1991) quoted computer programmer Alvy Ray Smith as having said, "reality is 80 million polygons per second" (p. 168). This is reminiscent of filmmaker Jean-Luc Godard who once said, "Film is truth at 24 frames per second" (quoted in Pimentel & Teixeira, 1993, p. 23). Well before motion pictures there were attempts to recreate reality. Stereographs, precursor to the modern Viewmaster, are pairs of photographs that when viewed using a special device create an illusion of 3-D, and have been described as VR for the 19th century. [15] Radio ushered in a reality of a different sort when, in 1938, the CBS radio network broadcast H. G. Wells's War of the Worlds, creating mass hysteria and panic. Live television broadcasts, with their claim "we take you now to...," promised to transport their viewers across town or around the world. In an attempt to restore dwindling audiences, widescreen cinema was promoted as an advance in motion picture presentation that promised an experience for the audience that would rival reality. According to Chesher, the filmic experiences of Cinerama and Todd AO [16] were promoted as an opportunity to "participate in the fictional world," where, "You're in the show with Todd AO...You live it. You're a part of it" (n.p.). While widescreen cinema addressed the visual dimension, others were looking for ways to stimulate additional senses as well. Morton Heilig's "Sensorama" was designed and patented in 1962. Also known as "experience theater" it combined 3-D film, audio, wind and aromas to create a multi-sensory experience in an arcade-like setting. An early prototype of the Sensorama featured a motorcycle ride through Brooklyn which, although not interactive, provided all of the sensory stimulation that one might imagine for such a ride. John Waters' 1981 film Polyester was presented in "odorama." Theatergoers were given "scratch-n-sniff" cards that were to be used at selected times during the film's presentation. As we approach the end of the twentieth century it has been determined, by industry and government, that the American public is now ready for Digital High-Definition Television. In development since the late sixties and now finally being introduced to consumers in the United States, DTV promises a new experience for the viewer. With nearly twice the resolution of present television systems, a widescreen format that fills more of the viewer's field of view, and Dolby AC-3 surround sound, the television viewing experience is greatly enhanced. "According to ITU-R (formerly CCIR) Report 801-4, HDTV is described as able to replicate reality when the viewer is seated three screen heights away from the display" (Ebersole, in press). And for those who want an even greater thrill, theme-park attractions feature haptic stimulation, smells, and tastes in addition to enhanced auditory and visual presentations to make the experience "larger than life." As new communication and presentation technologies arrive on the scene, the public's first exposure to them is often quite dramatic. This introductory period is typically followed by the development of literacies that serve to moderate our reactions. For example, some of the first public displays of motion pictures resulted in viewers responding physically to the images on the screen. Shapiro and McDonald (1992) relate several cases in the early years of motion picture history in which movie-goers were momentarily fooled by the reality of the new visual medium. The authors cite Palmer (1909) who "recounts the story of a Montana man who fell asleep in a motion picture theater and, when he awoke, mistook a motion picture image of a bear for an actual bear and fired a gun" (p. 99). Other accounts testify that viewers of the Lumiéré brothers' short motion picture Arrival of a Train actually leapt out of their seats to avoid the oncoming locomotive. Clearly for these early movie theater-goers the experience was as impressive as someone's first exposure to full immersion VR today. [17] The Technology of VRThe input and output points of contact define the human-computer interface. The study of user interface is known by a variety of terms; e.g., human-computer interaction (HCI), human factors, and ergonomics. [18] If an interface is defined as where two different worlds meet, it would appear that the more dissimilar the two worlds the greater the need for a well-designed interface. Standard graphical user interfaces, (GUIs), such as Windows and the Macintosh OS have evolved over years of research and testing. [19] These typically rely on a metaphor of a virtual desktop with files, folders, a calculator, and a trash can. While it is doubtful that anyone who currently uses a Windows or Macintosh operating system feels as though he is immersed in a virtual desktop, operating systems of the future may attempt to do just that. Interface tools used for interactive media include the keyboard, mouse, touch screen, and joystick. For more advanced applications, such as VR, the technology becomes more complicated. The hardware that makes immersive VR, as it is generally understood, possible includes; 1) a head-mounted display (HMD) that presents a wide-angle stereoscopic visual environment, 2) an audio system that provides three-dimensional sound, and, 3) a data glove and/or body-suit and tracking device to gather input data from the user. Other options for input devices include the wand and 3D mouse. At this level, the interface begins to change the nature of user involvement. Sensory data gathered from and provided to the user creates an operating environment that masks the underlying technology. According to John Walker, former CEO of AutoDesk, VR is the ultimate in human-computer interaction and the conclusion to its historical progression (cited in Chesher). VR is principally about getting human data into and out of a computer with as little distortion as possible. The most transparent, but still futuristic, approach is the one described by William Gibson in his 1984 novel Neuromancer. In this cyberpunk novel, information cowboys "jack-in to the Matrix" using a wet-wired neural implant to bypass the external sense organs altogether. While this vision seems far from reality, retinal-scanning laser technology that can scan high-resolution images directly onto the optic nerves is currently in development at the HIT Lab in Seattle, Washington. The HMD, since its first prototype in the 1960s, has continued to evolve. [20] Increasing in resolution and picture quality and decreasing in size and weight, the HMD presents a stereoscopic view of the computer-generated scene that fills the viewers' field-of-view. [21] The display typically includes electromagnetic coils that provide tracking information. This allows the computer to continually update the scene to reflect changes in the position and angle of the user's head. The development and increased capacity of computer processing technology has made computer-generated imagery possible on a level necessary for true VR. Photorealistic texture-mapped 3-D imagery that respond with minimal lag time to the users gaze or gestures has been possible for only a short time, and affordable for an even shorter time. The computer chips necessary to perform such feats becomes smaller, more reliable, and less expensive every year. [22] At the same time, 3-D audio systems have advanced to bring the same level of realism to the auditory dimension. The data glove is an input device that is worn on the hand and that allows the user to gesture, point, motion, or even "pick up" virtual objects. Fiber optic sensors measure the position and flex of the hand and supply this information to the computer. As with all VR hardware, early versions of the devices were costly. VPL Research's DataGlove sold for approximately US $8000 in the early 1990s. Interestingly, Mattel briefly offered a similar glove called the PowerGlove for its NES game system. The price of the PowerGlove was only US $80. Another sense that has been the target of VR research has been that of touch. Haptic interfaces that provide information to the fingertips and other sensitive areas are used to give the user a sense of the tactile qualities of the virtual world. Force feedback systems take this a step further by providing realistic information about the behavior of the virtual device. For example, the joystick used to fly a plane or the steering wheel used to direct a car should transmit information back to the operator for a fully realistic experience. Motion platforms, used both by NASA and by immersive amusement park VR rides, convey a sense of bodily motion with "carefully calibrated movements, vibrations and jolts" (Biocca, 1992b, p. 47). The Inventors of VRSome of the leading scientists, researchers, and entrepreneurs who invented the technology and applications that evolved into what we currently know as VR include; Morton Heilig, Douglas Engelbart, Myron Krueger, Ivan Sutherland, Thomas Furness, Frederick Brooks, and Jaron Lanier. One of the earliest developments in multi-sensory experience, the Sensorama, was patented in 1962 by Morton Heilig. Heilig's relatively low-tech device used motion picture technology to create its visual display. In addition to the projected image the Sensorama provided sounds, smells, haptic sensation, and even a breeze to simulate movement. About the same time former Navy radar specialist Douglas Engelbart was working to improve the human-computer interface (HCI) and Ivan Sutherland was inventing what would later become computer-assisted drawing (CAD). Engelbart's Augmentation Research Center at Stanford Research Laboratory (now Stanford Research Institute) birthed many inventions, including the computer mouse in 1965 and multiple tiled windows in 1968, both of which have become the basis for today's graphical user interfaces (GUIs) such as the Macintosh OS and Microsoft's Windows. Sutherland's Sketchpad in 1963 was the first computer imaging device that allowed using a light pen to draw and manipulate images directly on a monitor without the need to write lines of computer code. Sutherland's contribution to the advance of computer graphics was outlined in his paper, The Ultimate Display. In the paper he wrote, "One must look at a display screen as a window through which one beholds a virtual world. The challenge to computer graphics is to make the picture in the window look real, sound real and the objects act real" (quoted in Isdale, 1993, n.p.). While the computer graphic displays advanced in terms of resolution, frame rate, and realism, the border of the screen continued to remind the viewer that this was only an illusion. What was needed was a display that would fill the user's field of view. This realization led Sutherland to develop the first head-mounted computer display (HMD) at the University of Utah. Nicknamed the "Sword of Damocles," the device was too heavy for the user to support and so was suspended from the ceiling (Rheingold, 1991, p. 105). Myron Krueger's attempt to solve the same problem took a different approach-he created a space with video projection technology into which the user could enter. Projected graphics surrounded the participants with interactive visuals and sounds as they enter the "cave." Krueger's "Videoplace" and "Glowflow" projects allowed participants to enter a computer simulated "artificial reality" but did not require the user to don intrusive interface hardware. Another important milestone in the development of the technology was the invention of the first data glove in 1981 by Tom Zimmerman. While the HMDs and other display technologies provided the interface to receive information from the computer, the data glove allowed users to input data in a way that was much more natural and intuitive. With the data glove gestures could initiate action and even allowed the user to interact with and "handle" virtual objects. Zimmerman later teamed up with Jaron Lanier, founder and CEO of VPL Research. [23] VPL Research was a major force in the early 1990s marketing such VR hardware as the DataGlove, EyePhones (an inexpensive HMD) and even a full body suit. VR in Science Fiction
Often, new technologies are developed in response to a perceived need. At other times the need comes much later. And more often than not, new technologies are envisioned in the science fiction literature long before becoming a practical reality. The history of VR would not be complete without a look at the origin of VR applications in science fiction literature. If all of these high-tech toys sound like something out of science fiction, you're right. Throughout history science fiction literature has had an interesting relationship to technology development. Larson (1996) credits Aldous Huxley with the invention of VR when he wrote about the "Feelies" in his 1932 classic Brave New World (pp. 95-96). The "Feelies" were a futuristic form of entertainment that engaged all of the senses. Ray Bradbury's short story The Veldt, in The Illustrated Man (1951), described a futuristic house with a special room, the walls of which contained high-tech displays that sensed your thoughts and projected a simulated world to match. Artificial sexual stimulation was the idea behind the "Orgasmatron" in Woody Allen's Sleeper, released in 1973. William Gibson's futuristic cyberpunk novels and his concepts of "cyberspace" and "the Matrix" are frequently credited with the popularization of the idea of VR (Wooley, 1992; cited in Barnes, 1996, p. 36). The "Holodeck" from Startrek: The Next Generation promoted VR to a broad audience. Each of these visions has contributed to the pop culture understanding of this evolving technological phenomena. Although Marshall McLuhan was not known for writing science fiction, his visionary projections of media influence seem right at home with today's developments. In Understanding Media (1964), McLuhan wrote,
VR ApplicationsThe concept of VR has captured the imaginations of people from a diverse spectrum of modern culture. Diverse cultures ranging from cyberpunk to the military collaborated in bringing VR to life. The variety of VR applications suggests a dichotomy between the interests of VR innovators. Jacking into the Matrix, direct stimulation of the nervous system, has been envisioned for all sorts of uses-not the least of which is altering consciousness. William Gibson's cyberspace as "consensual hallucination" and early but persistent associations of VR with "electronic LSD" [24] suggest the escapist and entertainment value of VR. Early involvement of Timothy Leary in the promotion of VR contributed to the notion that VR was little more than another way to trip. [25] Similarly virtual sex is envisioned as a way to use technology to provide sensory stimulation of another kind. From this perspective, VR is really about providing an alternative to our mundane, everyday reality. On the other hand, VR applications for business and commercial purposes are promoted for very different purposes. [26] Pioneers and evangelists of VR promise breakthroughs in entertainment, education and training (Patkin, 1996), military, and business applications. These apparently distinct views of VR, the first as an environment that will allow us to modify our mental or emotional state and the second as an environment that will allow us to manipulate our physical environment, suggest very different uses for VR development. But which one is right? Which one will win out in the end? Will VR be a tool of the military, for industry, or leisure, or some combination thereof? Military ApplicationsThe military origins of VR are evident on numerous fronts. Most of the leading VR researchers, with the notable exception of Jaron Lanier, have at one time or another been funded by military research grants. In addition, military agencies conduct their own research. The Defense Department's SIMNET project allows participants to "practice" war by linking simulators around the country, and even around the world (Hapgood, 1997). Learning sophisticated aircraft systems has been at the forefront of military research. Thomas A. Furness III, former director of the Air Force's VR research program at Wright-Patterson AFB, was instrumental in the development of heads up displays (HUDs) and HMDs for flight simulators whose earliest versions date back to WWII. [27] Another important VR research center with government ties is NASA's Ames Research Center in Mountain View, California. Here in the mid 1980s much of the current VR research came together and began to gain momentum. Military uses of VR involve problem solving and experimentation that is more efficient and less costly when performed virtually. Flight training for air combat, missle lauches, and other high-risk activities can be practiced in relative safety and at less expense on virtual battlefields. However, simulation is not the only military application of VR technology. C. J. Keep (1993), describing the "Super Cockpit" program of the US Air Force, pointed out an important difference between this technology and the flight simulators that have gone before. "In the hyperreal Super Cockpit, the work performed in the virtual space is also work done in the real world; when the 'young fighter jock' downs a 'bandit' by pushing 'a phantom button on a virtual display screen,' then it is not a virtual person but a real person who dies in the bright light of a real air-to-air missile" (n.p., emphasis in the original). The Gulf War in 1992 was a virtual experience for many Americans; glued to their television screens they watched missiles strike enemy targets with all the unreal detachment of a video arcade game. The military origins of VR continue to be visible in the flight simulator and "shoot-em-up" arcade games of today. Commercial ApplicationsBusinesses with an interest in VR include architecture (McMillan, 1994), medicine, [28] travel, [29] and science. Taking a virtual tour through a building still in the process of architectural design is just one example of the practical application of VR research. A slightly different proposed application is for the visualization of and navigation through data in three-dimensional space (Leftwich, 1993). VR technology may show the greatest promise in the merging of entertainment and leisure with business. Elizabeth Weiss (1996) envisions an application for VR in "The cybergym; Virtual reality in the health club." In her article, Weiss envisions a time when one will be able to, "cross-country ski across a mountain, row across a lake, or even bike across America. But gone are any unpleasant snow moguls, the irregular currents of a lake, or those unpredictable hills in nature" (p. 220). And not only will the CyberGym promote physical health, it will encourage togetherness.
Such utopian visions of a future where family time and togetherness are facilitated by VR technology appears to me to run counter to the lessons of history and ignores the reality of human nature. Virtual SetsAnother commercial application of VR technology is not one you'll find on your desktop computer, but rather one that may become increasingly visible on your television receiver. "Virtual set" technology makes possible computer generated sets that replace the conventional sets found in the typical television studio. Instead of sets manufactured from wood and paneling, virtual sets are computer generated. When combined with live-action elements, such as actors and props, they allow a studio production to appear as though it is taking place in any real or imaginary location of the producer's choosing. The "virtual" nature of the technology, and what sets it apart from more traditional blue-screen or chroma-key effects, is that the computer generated background is constantly updated to account for any movement of the studio cameras. The position of the camera in the virtual set sends data to the computer which is used to render the appropriate graphic background. Virtual sets were introduced to the television production community at the 1995 National Association of Broadcasters' Convention in Las Vegas, Nevada by the Silicon Graphics company. The network television debut of this technology was for the 1996 national elections. Taking this concept a step further, researchers at Carnegie Mellon University are exploring the use of camera-generated images of real life as the source from which to build computer generated images of that reality (Kanade, et. al.). Their so-called "Virtualized Reality" technology may be used to re-create three-dimensional VR worlds that accurately portray real worlds without having to build them from "scratch." Alternative Applications of VR TechnologyThe immersive VR that has been described so far has largely been the playground of researchers and scientists who have had big budgets and powerful computers. However, the current trend in VR for the masses has been made possible by a different Defense Department computer project-the Internet. The sudden growth and popularity of the Internet and the graphically-rich World-Wide Web (WWW) has resulted in a new computer-mediated medium. It should come as no surprise that VR enthusiasts have rushed to take advantage of the possibilities presented by this new medium. VRMLThe programming language of the WWW is HyperText Markup Language (HTML) a subset of Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML). In early 1994 Mark Pesce added to these Virtual Reality Markup Language (VRML), for authoring and navigating through virtual graphical worlds on the web. VRML is a computer language that allows users to create virtual objects and spaces that can be explored by anyone connected to the Internet who has the required VRML-capable browser software. VRML has the potential to turn the flat, two-dimensional graphics and information on the WWW into three-dimensional spaces for interactive navigation. QuickTime VRAnother variety of VR on the WWW is provided by Apple Computer's QuickTime VR. QuickTime VR takes advantage of Apple's QuickTime technology to create virtual worlds that are created from a series of still photographs. Photographs are scanned and then "stitched" together by the authoring software. The final product appears to be a seamless three-dimensional photograph that the viewer can move through, in and around. The Social Uses of VRIn some VR environments interaction is provided by another human who is occupying the same virtual space. In others, such as single player games, all or nearly all of the interaction is supplied by the many lines of computer code that make up the program. Even then is important to understand that this programmed interaction is a product of human invention by a software engineer. Every virtual world has a human creator. While some VR critics warn of the dangers of isolation for those who spend extended lengths of time alone in virtual worlds, others envision a new social context for communication in which global virtual communities are formed around shared interests. Text-Based VRThe fantasy role-playing game Dungeons and Dragons is widely understood to be the inspiration for computer fantasy worlds called MUDs. MUD at one time stood for Multi-User Dungeon, but now more commonly means Multi-User Domain. Text-based MUDs have evolved to become object-oriented MOOs (MUD, Object-Oriented), moving closer to the concept of VR. In both MUDs and MOOs, participants create a persona or avatar, contribute to building a simulated environment, and interact with other participants. [30] In contrast to the immersion VR systems described thus far, text-based VR facilitates the construction of virtual worlds with readily available materials-a computer keyboard and a willing mind. These virtual worlds are created in cyberspace and are populated by computer enthusiasts seeking to engage in mediated human interaction. As physical spaces become increasingly dangerous and uninhabitable, virtual spaces of our own construction become increasingly attractive. Virtual realities allow us to modify our identities, improve our appearance, and control our interactions with others. As users of MUDs and MOOs have known for some time, creating an avatar to operate in a fictive dimension is an intoxicating experience. These virtual worlds are real in so far as they represent the interactions of humans in real-time. The creation of reality in this case is a social construction, rather than the biological, sense-based artificial reality of what is traditionally known as full-immersion VR. One could argue that this socially-constructed, text-based VR experience is immersive in a different sense of the word. Reports of "addictive" behavior have been attributed to MUDDing and related activities. [31] Virtual SexOne of the more lively topics of discussion in VR circles and the popular press is virtual sex or "teledildonics." [32] There have been several scholarly treatments of the phenomena (e.g., Deuel, 1996; Lipton, 1996; Adams, 1996), as well as keen popular interest. Deuel (1996), in reference to text-based VR, wrote, "Vsex is immensely popular and pervasive in virtual communities" (p. 131). Virtual sex is frequently promoted as all the fun without the hassles. Deuel (1996) cited Branwyn who wrote, "Compu-sex enthusiasts say it's the ultimate safe sex for the 1990s, with no exchange of bodily fluids, no loud smoke-filled clubs, and no morning after" (p. 131). Nor is there any need to present yourself as you exist "in real life" (IRL); e.g., weight, hair color, age, or gender. But virtual sex is not without consequences. The now infamous account of forced sex, or "virtual rape" as described by Dibble (1993) and critiqued by MacKinnon (1997), which took place in the LambdaMOO in March 1993 raises some important questions about the nature of virtual interaction. [33] It is this sensitive area where words become actions that draws the line between protected speech and dangerous speech. Adams (1996) quoted Dibbell; "I did not, however, conclude as a result that rapists were protected in any fashion by the First Amendment. Quite the opposite, in fact: the more seriously I took the notion of virtual rape, the less seriously I was able to take the notion of freedom of speech, with its tidy division of the world into the symbolic and the real....[Here we find] the conflation of speech and act that's inevitable in any computer-mediated world....I can no longer convince myself that our wishful insulation of language from the realm of action has ever been anything but a valuable kludge. (Dibbell 1993, 42)." In Cyberfeminism by Kira Hall (1996), the author quotes the accused cyber-rapist, Mr. Bungle, who defending himself by saying, "It was purely a sequence of events with no consequence on my RL [Real Life] existence" (p. 157). This false dicotomy of real life from virtual life, and the inability to see the consequences that result when one effects the other, has significant implications for VR participants. One of the many dangers of cybersex is the effect that fantasy has on reality. Sociologist and MIT professor Sherry Turkle, author of The Second Self and Life on the Screen was quoted in an interview for Wired magazine (April, 1996, p. 165), "Is online sex like having an affair? Is it my business because I'm married to you? Or is it like you're reading pornography and it's none of my business?" Besides the obvious questions that this quote raises, one could argue that reading pornography is an issue for a spouse. Whether it is presented as text, photographs, video, phone sex, or full immersion virtual reality, pornography will have deleterious effects on a healthy marriage relationship. The interactive nature of phone-sex, hot-chat, or virtual sex presents additional concerns: one of which is the presence of the "other" person and the increased chance that the act could be consummated in IRL. The Future of VR
As I mentioned at the beginning of this paper, it has been nearly five years since the Journal of Communication devoted an entire issue to this subject that was, "too important, too wondrous, too powerful, to permit continued disciplinary ignorance" (p. 3). In the closing article of that issue, Biocca interviewed Lanier about the past, present, and future of VR.
While the hyperbole has been tempered by the poor performance and even failure of major VR initiatives, Lanier's comments remind us that VR remains one of the last enclaves of those who espouse technological utopianism. Historical works by Czitrom (1982) and Marvin (1988) have documented the projections of almost messianic proportions that have accompanied new communication media. The fantastical nature of VR took these claims to new heights during the late 1980s and early 1990s. In the movie Lawnmower Man, Jobe is the village idiot turned cyber genius by the power of VR. Once he conquers the technology he gains control of the virtual world, exclaiming, "I am God here!" (quoted in Heim, p. 145). This guise of omniscience via communication technology is a common theme in VR culture. Ethics of Virtual Life
What do we make of a world where actions have no consequences? Herbert Zettl questioned the ethics of a VR world in which there is no accountability for actions taken and choices made. He wrote,
And what about the difficulty of moving from one dimension into the other. Zettl asked whether it might be possible that we "suffer some kind of psychosis similar to that of war veterans who, for the act of killing, are declared heroes in one environment and murderers in another" (p. 93). This absence of real-world consequences is potentially what makes VR so valuable for flight simulator training and so dangerous for interpersonal human communication. Hollywood films often carry the disclaimer assuring the viewers that "no animals were harmed in the making of this film." Perhaps our VR games and experiences in the future will carry similar disclaimers to put our minds at ease. Unless of course, if harm and death is our objective. As pilotless tanks and aircraft wage virtual war on distant battlefields, questions arise as to the distancing effect of technology-assisted action. Push-button killing, whether it be launching a missile or turning off a respirator, interjects technology into otherwise human activity. And what about virtual sex, teledildonics, and its claim to be the perfect orgasm in this day and age of STDs and skyrocketing teen pregnancy. Is it really? Shapiro & McDonald, (1992) questioned whether a person should feel guilty for committing virtual adultery (p. 109). The fine line between reality and truth is blurred beyond recognition by VR technology. Frederick Brooks, VR researcher at UNC, was quoted by Rheingold (1991) as having said, "The danger of more and more realism is that if you don't have corresponding truthfulness, you teach people things that are not so" (p. 45). And what about virtual community? In "Cyberspace, Shmyberspace," the skeptical epilogue to Communication and Cyberspace, Neil Postman (1996) wrote:
In McLuhan's terms, VR is a tool of extension-extending our senses and our reach in ways that we could previously only dream about. And like all amplifiers VR amplifies both signal and noise-both wanted and unwanted artifacts of the human mind and spirit.
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