The Warnings Database Page

This page has my database of warnings articles. Each record has the standard bibliographic information as well as a brief summary of the article. Each record also contains the a field for for noting the particular user response measured (self-reported hazard perceptions, stated preferences between two or more warnings, with or without products, user response times, and observed behavior). For each empirical article, the measure(s) reported are marked according to a boolean variable for the particular response type. Many of the studies report user responses from two or more of the categories and are so marked. The second basis on which the articles are categorized is the type of independent variable studied. The three types considered were "warning" variables (i.e., those having to do with how the warning itself is presented), environmental variables (i.e. those having to do with the context in which the warning is delivered) and personal variables (those which relate to the personal characteristics of the study participants, such as age, education, gender). Finally, because many of the empirical studies in the warnings literature have utilized undergraduate psychology students as study participants, one other field was included to note whether the study participants were undergraduate psychology students (P), undergraduate college students (S) or members of some other group or the population as a whole.

The development of the database is an ongoing process. Articles continue to be added. If you are aware of an article which you think would be useful to include, please send me an email with the article citation and I will get it added.

Article Number

Code

Article Title

Author 1

Author 2

Author 3

Author 4

Author 5

Author 6

Autho r7

Abstract

Citation

Publication Date

Compliance

Read

Recall

Recognition

Response Times

Modeling Effects

Pictorial

Auditory Alarm

Visual Alarm

Color

Print Size

Border

Age

Sex

Education

Design and Interpretability of road signs

Brainard, Robert W.

Campbell, Richard J.

Elkin, Edwin H.

A standardized series of road signs is now in use in some of the Western European countries. The signs have received considerable attention in this country, partly due to their uniqueness and partly due to their apparent ease of interpretation. The signs make minimal use of language, attempting instead to convey the desired information through pictorial and symbolic representation. The road signs used in the United States are often ambiguous, require considerable time to interpret, depend primarily on written language, and lack standardization. These factors lead to inconvenience, loss of travel time, and may contribute, directly and indirectly, to accidents. It thus becomes a matter of importance to investigate means for improving the interpretability of United States road signs. It was the propose of the present study to determine how well the European signs could be interpreted, and to relate these findings to sign preferences (stereotype). More specifically, the aim of the study was fourfold: (a) to investigate the interpretability of the European road signs; (b) to determine if stereotypes exist for signs appropriate to highway use, and if so; (c) to determine if there are general characteristics which are common to both the stereotypes and the easily interpreted European signs; and (d) to test the effectiveness, in terms of increased interpretability, of signs based on stereotypes.

False

True

False

The Hazard Association Value of Safety Sign

Bresnahan, Thomas

This study looks at the proposed international Standards Organization standard for safety signs and colors to learn how effective its visual hazard alerting clues are. Prototype signs, which met the specifications of the ISO Draft Recommendation 3864.2 were produced. These signs and various experimental versions were presented to subjects who rated each sign which respect to the degree of hazards associated with each sign. Analysis of the results of the controlled association task reveal the ISO proposal did not meet its visual alerting objectives in eliciting differential hazard associations. Potential application of these safety signs or elements of the signs through standards makes empirical validation of these signs imperative.

False

True

False

True

False

Odorization of Inert Gas for Occupational Safety: Psychophysical Considerations

Cain, William S.

Leaderer, Vrian P.

Cannon, Lawrence

Tarik Tosun

Hanah Ismail

False

Smell of Danger: An Analysis of LP-Gas Odorization

Cain, William S.

Turk, Amost

LP-gas derives warning properties from the odorants ethyl mercaptan or thiophane. Laboratory tests have implied that the average person has the ability to smell the odors before leaking LP-gas reaches one-fifth its lower limit of flammability. Generally, however, laboratory tests ignore or discard persons with a poor sense of smell, especially the elderly and persons with certain types of hyposmia. Some persons who apparently can smell the warning agents when directed may otherwise fail to notice or identify them. Elderly men seem particularly vulnerable to instances of incidental anosmia and olfactory agnosia. Psychophysical testing of the warning agents has been rather unsophisticated. There exists neither a standard protocol for testing nor adequate specification of the perceptual properties that might make one warning agent better than another. Without such developments, improvement in warning agents will fail to occur. Possible improvements include increase in concentration, the use of blends to insure more uniform delivery of agent and, to decrease the perceptual vulnerability of relatively insensitive people, use of agents with favorable psychophysical (stimulus-response) functions and use of agents with favorable adaptation characteristics. Even without a change in existing products, it seems advisable to learn more about the vulnerability of LP-gas users and to employ educational means to reduce risks.

False

Communication effectiveness of symbolic safety signs with different user groups

Cairney, P.T

Sless, D.

Contrary to popular belief, little systematic evaluation has been undertaken of how well public information signs convey their intended message. The application of a proposed evaluation procedure, involving an initial Recognition Test and a subsequent Recall Test, to a set of occupational safety signs is reports. Respondents comprised migrants and native-born Australians attending adult literacy classes, including a group of recently-arrived Vietnamese. Despite inter-group differences in the total number of signs correctly identified on both Recognition and Recall Tests, the same signs gave rise to difficulty for all groups. The sources of difficulty are discussed in terms of distinctiveness of referents, comprehension of shape and color code, and translation from symbol to referent. The implications of the test results for user education programmers is also considered

Applied Ergonomics

1982

False

True

False

True

False

True

False

Evaluating The Understanding of Symbolic Roadside Information Signs

Cairney, P.T.

Sless, D.

A set of uniform roadside information symbolic signs proposed by NAASRA for inclusion in Australian Standard AS1742 was evaluated in a Recognition Test and a later Recall Test. Although the five groups of respondents, who differed widely in driving experience, differed in the proportion of correct answer given, there was a moderate degree of consistency as to how well signs were understood. While the “Youth Hostel” and “Petrol and Repairs” signs gave rise to particular difficulty on the Recognition Test, only the latter was poorly identified on the Recall Test. Between-Group differences in per cent correct identification in both tests were apparently related to driving experience, with the group of elderly respondents giving fewest correct answers. Signs differed in the extent to which prior exposure aided correct identification. The sources of the difficulties experienced by the elderly are discussed in terns of expectations about symbolic signing systems and difficulties in translating unfamiliar symbolic material.

False

True

False

True

False

An Investigation of Shapes for Warning Labels

Cochran, David J.

Riley, Michale W.

Douglass, Eileen I.

An examination was made of nineteen different geometric shapes of warning labels, using the method of paired comparisons. Sixty-six college students viewed slides of all pair of the shapes and each time selected the shape that was the better indicator of warning. The binomial test was used to statistically test the difference between the shapes. Results showed that of the shaped tested, the triangle on its vertex (yield sign shape, ?) was the best warning indicator.

False

True

False

True

college students

Warning and Human Behavior: Implications for the Design of Product Warnings

Dorris, Alan L.

Purswell, Jerry L.

The supplier of a product has legal and ethical obligations to warn of hazards associated with the use of the product. From the legal perspective, an inadequate warning may be considered to be no warning at all and a defective warning may be just as serious as a defect in design or a manufacturing defect. Aside from questions of liability, the responsible manufacturer is concerned with potential bodily injury or property damage which may result from use of the product. The issue concerning when a duty to warn is owed are thoroughly discussed in the legal literature and need not be examined here. Noel and Phillips (1974) provide an overview which is quite accessible to the practicing engineering or manager. It is interesting to note that, as Peters (1971) has pointed out, the very act of issuing a warning may be viewed as an admission that the product is known to be potentially hazardous and that is was marketed in spite of this knowledge. For the purpose of this paper, a warning is defined as a message intended to lessen the risk of personal injury or property damage by inducing certain patterns of behavior and discouraging or prohibiting certain other patterns of behavior. In the case of product warnings, the message is often presented by means of a label or sign attached to or associated with the product. Not all product warnings are of this type, however, as in the example of a warning bell or buzzer which provides an auditory signal of impending danger. It is important to note that the definition of a warning employed here implies that the objective of the message is to minimize danger to persons and property. This should not to taken as a denial of the possibility that a warning is provided in order to meet a law, regulation or standard, but this definition does imply that a warning message which does not result in the desired pattern of behavior cannot be considered to have been fully effective. The following sections of this paper address three aspects of the problem of designing effective warnings. In the next section, the nature of the warning process is examined and some aspects of human behavior which are known to affect responses to warnings are mentioned. The following section discusses some design parameters for product warning labels. This material draws on the discipline of human factors engineering which has traditionally been concerned with the problems associated with presenting information in a form such that it is easily received and processed by humans. The final section of the paper outlines needs for further research on product warning effectiveness. The objective of these studies would be the development of additional design criteria in order to enable manufacturers to design more effective warnings.

False

An Empirical Investigation of Consumer Perception of Product Safety

Dorris, Alan L.

Tabrizi, M.F.

Interest in the safety of consumer products has increased dramatically in recent years. To a great extent, this interest has been fostered by the rather dramatic increase in products liability litigation and the sizable and well-publicized awards which are sometimes presented to those who have suffered injury or property damage as a result of product related accidents. The Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) has also served to stimulate interest by publicizing products which are judged to be potentially hazardous and by developing a considerable body of statistical data pertaining to product related injuries. The legal, engineering and management literatures contain many articles which address issues related to the conduct of products liability law suits, the technical aspects of engineering design for safer products and the development of management procedures, policies and methodologies which are intended to result in safer products and minimize the manufacturer’s exposure to lawsuits. Relatively little research has been conducted into the behavioral aspects of product safety. Martin and Heimstra (1973) used the Perception of Hazard Test to investigate factors which affect the degree of hazardousness associated with several actions as judge by children. They found that the age, sex and socioeconomic status of children are important variables related to hazard perception. In general, the children tended to judge actions as more hazardous than did a group of expert judges. Smith and Tolvher (1977) have examined the perceived hazardousness of a group of actions typical of an industrial plant. They developed a scale of perceived hazardousness and compared this with a scale of actual hazardousness based upon accident records. Some actions were found to be perceived as more hazardous than the data suggests while for other actions, hazardousness was underestimated.

Journal of Products Liability, Vol.2 pp. 155-163

1978

False

The motorists’ perception of the bicyclists’ hand signals

Drury, C.G.

Pietraszewski, P.

The efficacy of both formal hand signals and informal body signals made by bicyclists was measured on 97 subjects ranging in age from 18 to 75 years. Slides of a bicycle rider approaching an intersection were shown to subjects whose task was to respond with the intended action of the rider (Left Turn, Straight Ahead, Right Turn or Stop) and to rate their confidence in their response (high or low). Forty-eight slides were shown comprising eight different signal conditions combined with six positions across the width of the roadway. Subjects were able to derive considerable information from rider position and from informal body signals such as looking over the shoulder. Hand signals were not perfectly recognized with about 29% errors for straight-arm signals and 35% errors for bent-arm signals. The implications for changes in the law and in training schemes are given.

Ergonomics, 1979, vol.22, no.9, 1045-1057

1979

False

18-75

Rapid Comprehension of Verbal and Symbolic Traffic Sign Messages

Ells, Jerry G.

Dewar, Robert E.

A “same” – “different” reaction time procedure was used in two experiments to measure the times required to comprehend the meaning of projected slides of traffic signs. The result indicated that signs with symbolic message could be understood more quickly than those with verbal messages. Visually degrading the signs resulted in a greater decrement in performance for verbal than for symbolic signs. Correlational analyses demonstrated reaction time to correlate significantly with a previously obtained measure of sign legibility taken from a moving motor vehicle on a roadway. The utility of reaction time as an index of traffic sign adequacy is discussed along with some possible practical implications of the research.

False

True

False

True

False

Effects of Hazard Warning on Workers’ Attitudes and Risk-Taking Behavior

Farid, Mamdouh I.

Lirtzman, Sidney I.

Until recently, the issue of job hazards has been largely ignored as a research and theoretical topic in business and management disciplines although workers perceptions and assessments of job hazards are of significance to managers. In this paper are reported results of an experiment conducted in Egyptian chemical firms to test the generality of an implicit rational model used to explain employees’ reactions to and perceptions of job hazards. Four hypotheses were tested: (1) workers; subjective estimated of their job hazards are positively related to the objective hazard, (2) workers’ subjective estimates of a prospective new job hazard will vary directly with the extent of hazard communicated by the new product label, (3) workers’ demand for new hazard wage premiums will vary directly with perceived prospective new work hazards, (4) workers’ intention to quit the job will vary directly with subjective and objective estimates of job hazards. All hypotheses were supported. The rational worker model appears to be a general explanation for workers’ responses to hazardous jobs and information on hazards. This model not only holds for USA workers but also for those in a nonwestern culture. Implications for management and the industrial setting are discussed.

Psychological Reports, 1991,68,659-673

1991

False

Effectiveness of Audible Warning Signals for Emergency Vehicles

Bolt Beranek

Twenty-four subjects engaged in a stimulated driving task detected audible warning signals of the sort commonly used by emergency vehicles. The stimulated driving task, carried out in an instrumented car under computer control, included steering toward alternately illuminated fender lights and maintaining a constant speedometer reading. The required detection response was depression of the brake pedal. To a first approximation, signals of equal detectability were equally effective in eliciting braking responses.

Human Factors, 1978, 20(1), 19-26

1978

False

True

False

How safe is safe enough? A Psychometric Study of Attitudes Towards Technological Risks and Benefits

Fischhoff, Baruch

Slovic, Paul

Lichtenstein, Sarah

One of the fundamental questions addressed by risk-benefit analysis is “How safe is safe enough?” Chauncey Starr has proposed that economic data be used to reveal patterns of acceptable risk-benefit tradeoffs. The present study investigates an alternative technique, in which psychometric procedures were used to elicit quantitative judgments of perceived risk, acceptable risk, and perceived benefit for each of 30 activities and technologies. The participants were seventy-six members of the League of Women Voters. The results indicated little systematic relationship between perceived existing risks and benefits of the 30 risk items. Current risk levels were generally viewed as unacceptably high. When current risk levels were adjusted to what would be considered acceptable risk levels, however, risk was found to correlate with benefit. Nine descriptive attributes of risk were also studied. These nine attributes seemed to tap two basic dimensions of risk. These dimensions proved to be effective predictors of the tradeoff between acceptable risk and perceived benefit. The limitations of the present study and the relationship between this technique and Starr’s technique are discussed, along with the implications of the findings for policy decisions.

Policy Sciences 9 (1978) , pp.127-152

1978

False

A Pilot Study on The Perceived Urgency of Multitone and Frequency-Modulated Warning Signals

Haas, E.C.

In some environments, there is a serious mismatch between the perceived (psychoacoustic) urgency of a warning and its situation urgency. This pilot study investigated effect of pulse format, pulse duration, and time between pulses on the perceived urgency of warning signals. The intent was to determine the best combination of variables and levels of variables to use in a formal study on the perceived urgency of warning signals. The results indicated that only pulse format and time between pulses were significant. Subjects rated sequential pulses as being less urgent than any other format. Signals with shorter inter-pulse intervals were rated as significantly more urgent. Pulse format and time between pulses were determined to be variables which should be used in future research.

Proceedings of the Human Fators Society 36th Annual Meeting-1992

1992

False

True

False

True

False

Human Awakening and Subsequent Identification of Fire-Related Cues

Kahn, Michale J.

Twenty-Four college-age male subjects, employed for one night each, were evaluated on their ability to awaken and then identify fire cues. Twelve subjects were exposed to smoke alarm warning signals of three intensities, while a second set of twelve subjects were exposed to a smoke odor, a heat presentation, and a signal smoke alarm warning signal. Subjects were in all cases, awakened by alarms that reached their ears at signal/noise ration at 34 dB. They were considerably less likely to be awakened by heat, smoke odor, and alarm sounds that reached their ears at signal/noise ratios of 10 dB of less. Upon awakening, subjects repeatedly failed to correctly label radiant heat presentations and smoke alarm warnings as fire cues.

Proceedings of the Human Factors Society- 27th Annual Meeting – 1983

1983

True

False

True

False

True

False

male

college

Knowledge of Warning Labels on Alcoholic Beverage containers

Kaskutas, Lee

Greenfield, Tom

Health warning labels are now required on alcohol beverage containers in the United States. This study addresses who has seen these labels and changes in relevant knowledge. Random national samples of adults were interviewed by telephone six months prior to and six months after the enactment in November 1989 of the warning label law (N=2006 and 2000, respectively). Six months after introduction of warning labels, over one fifth of the respondents reported having seen the labels. Greater proportions of key target groups, such as young men at risk for drunk driving and heavy drinkers, reported seeing the warnings. Strength of belief in the truth of included label content increased significantly but very slightly, while for several non-included potential warnings it declined somewhat. The findings suggest that the current warning labels are being noticed by many of those at risk hazards discussed in the labels. Health information on alternative messages was initially less well known and knowledge levels declined, suggesting these also be considered as suitable warning messages.

False

True

False

Recognition of Symbol and Word traffic Signs

King, L.Ellis

A 35 mm slide tachistoscope projector was used to present 26 subjects with both symbol and word traffic signs. 1 at a time for an exposure duration of either 1/3 or 1/18 second. Each presentation was followed by either a 5-second delay period, a 10-second delay period, or a 10-second interference period after which the subject was asked to math the test sign to an identical sign, which was 1 of 10 shown on a following slide. The accuracy of the match was recorded. During the 10-second interference period, the subject was required to perform a simple reading task. Ten subjects were tested at the 1/3 second viewing time and 16 at the 1/18 second viewing time. All subjects, both drivers and non-drivers, were familiar with the word signing system, but only 1 had been previously exposed to the symbol system. The results of this study show that, under these laboratory test conditions, symbol signs are more accuracy recognized at the 1/18-second viewing time than are word signs.

False

True

False

True

False

True

False

Scaling Military Symbols: A Comparison of Techniques to Derive Associative Meaning

Knapp, Beverly G.

The use of symbolic representations of concepts is explored in the context of their inherent, associative meaning. Several symbol sets in military use were evaluated using two scaling techniques, ratings and pair comparisons. Findings validate a model of symbol categorization proposed by Modley (1966) and provide implications for the use of ratings vs. pair-comparisons in evaluating symbols.

False

True

False

Human Error as a Cause of Accidents in Gold Mining

Lawrence, A.C.

A theoretical model relating human error to accidents in underground mining was devised. The model focused attention, not necessarily on the victim of an accident, but on one or more participants to whom error could be attributed. Documentary evidence on 405 underground accidents that resulted in 424 fatalities was studied and classified in terms of the model. Analysis showed a total of 794 errors, the most dominant of which were failures to perceive warnings of danger (36%) and underestimations of hazard (25%). The probability of perceptual error was greatest when the warning was a composite one rather than a single audible or visual stimulus, when the participant was of supervisory level, and when underground tramming operations were involved.

False

True

False

Exploratory Factor Analysis of Adolescent Attitudes Toward Alcohol and Risk

Lehto, Mark R.

James, Dwayne S.

Foley, James P.

This 2-year longitudinal study of 302 high school students in the state of Indiana examined attitudes toward the use of alcohol in 25 potentially hazardous setting, varying from riding in a car to swimming, to simply drinking at home. Student ratings indicated that they were capable of rationally evaluating alcohol-related risks. Principal components factor analysis identified three factors underlying student response: propensity/ desirability of the behavior, choice/control of the risk, and fear/consequences/likelihood of the risk. Each of these factors was comparable to factors found to be important in past studies of adult risk perception. The finding that self-reported behavioral propensity and desirability were weakly correlated with the measures of perceived risk is of particular interest. Attempts to reduce the use of alcohol by adolescents have traditionally focused on risk awareness. The implication of this study is that intervention programs might be more successful if they focused on modifying perceived value.

Journal of Safety Research, vol.25, No.4, pp.197-213,1994

1994

False

High school

Commonly used Hazard Descriptors are not well understood

Leonard, S.David

Five studies were performed to evaluate how well the general public comprehend some terminology often used on warnings. Open ended and multiple choice surveys of characteristics of hazards as well as ratings of the seriousness of hazards associated with terms used in warnings indicated that people not trained in specific systems often do not understand the nature of the hazards they encounter. The results are discussed in terms of necessity for training and for expansion of the information presented in warnings.

False

How does the population Interpret warning signals?

Leonard, S.David

Matthews, David

The experiment concerns the problem of responding appropriately to earnings. Some organizations, such as the military and the American National Standards Institute have adopted particular meanings for certain signal words. The population at large is not trained in these respects. Therefore, it is not known how they interpret different signal words. In keeping with the assumption that the stronger the warning, the more likely it will be heeded, an effort was made to determine how the population in general differentiates levels of warnings. The study examined population stereotypes for various signal words. Contrary to some studies (cf. Karnes and Leonard, 1986), no differences were found in ratings of perception of risk to different signal words. Further, size of the signal word and color of the signal word had no effect on perception of risk. Statements of consequences of disregarding the warnings and type of risk situation did affect rated perception of risk. Also, circumstances in which the subjects might be placed affected the ratings of likelihood of disregarding warnings. These results were discussed in terms of an adaptation level of information for perception of risk.

False

True

False

Adequacy of Response to Warning Terms

Leonard, S.David

Previous research has indicated that many persons have difficulty in describing the seriousness of hazards that are associated with some terms frequently used in warnings. Alternative explanations for this failure could be lack of understanding or simply inability to express their knowledge. Two studies were conducted in an effort to get more definitive information about what the general public knows about these terms. The obtained evidence suggested that many terms commonly used alone in warnings are not adequate to inform users of the extent of the hazards associated with those warnings. These results are discussed in terms of the need for completeness in warnings.

False

Inferences about Product Risks: A Mental Modeling approach to Evaluating Warnings

Macgregor, Donald G.

A psychological framework based on principles of risk perception and mental modeling was applied to the evaluation of a product warning label for a commercial grade of casting plaster made available to both professionals and home hobbyists. Beliefs about the product when mixed and used, expected seriousness of injuries associated with misuse, and risks of product preparation and handling were assessed using mental model paradigm. An analysis of the resulting judgments revealed that subjects assessed product hazardousness on the basis of both the information contained in the product warning and their prior model of the product’s behavior. Inferences about product risks were linked closely to interpretations of language terms contained in the warning. The results suggest that appreciation of a product’s risks is a function of the model people derive of a product from prior knowledge, personal experience, and warning information.

Journal of Products Liability, Vol. 12 pp.75-91 (1989)

1989

False

True

False

Substance Use and Memory for Health Warning Labels

Mackinnon, David P.

Fenaughty, Andrea M.

This article reports the relationship between substance use and memory for health warnings for cigarettes, smokeless tobacco, and alcohol. Measures of substance use and recognition memory for warning labels were collected from 2 samples of college student (n=288 and n=243). It was hypothesized that if health warnings were noticed and remembered, then users, because they were often exposed to the warning labels, would have more accurate memory for the risks written on the containers of these products than nonusers. Prior research had not confirmed this relationship. In Study 1, a statistically significant correlation was obtained between use and recognition memory for both cigarettes, and smokeless tobacco. The effects for cigarettes and smokeless tobacco were replicated in Study 2 and observed for alcohol as well.

False

True

False

college

The perception of Hazard by Children

Martin, Gary L.

Heimstra, Norman W.

A total of 1490 first, third, and fifth grade children from rural/urban and high/low socioeconomic backgrounds were tested with the Perception of Hazard Test. This test required a subject to rate, on a five-point scale. The degree of hazard perceived in a series of photographs. The photographs depict male and female models, 8 and 3 years of age, in 10 different scenes which based on epidemiological data, were determined to be potential accident scenes. Data analysis showed that the age and sex of the subjects their background and the sex and age of the models depicted in the photographs were significant factors in determining the amount of hazard perceived by a subject in any given scene.

False

True

False

third, first, and fifth grade

Warnings During Disaster: Normalizaing Communicated Risk

Mileti, Dennis S.

O’Brien, Paul W.

The theory of risk communications was tested with data on public perception of risk and response to after warnings during the post-impact Loma Prieta earthquake emergency. Findings from samples of households in Santa Cruz and San Francisco Counties were consistent, confirm established propositions, and suggest theoretical refinement. It was concluded that the social psychological process which explains post-impact warnings. The lack of main shock damage created a “normalization bias” for non-victims. This bias constrained perception of risk to damaging aftershocks and protective response to warning.

False

Road Sign Recognition and Non-Recognition

Mori, Masamitsu

Abdel-Halim, Mohammed Hani

The problem of non-recognition of road signs has many aspects which are of great importance in traffic safety. Considering all signs on a test road and eye-movement technique and recognition rate method, a temporal analysis has been conducted for 2 techniques of driving: driving with the time necessary to see, read and recognize each type of road sign, and free driving to determine the actual time the driver spends reading these signs. The actual time spent provides recognition rates, totally and partially, and also rates of non-recognition. Many of the factors involved were investigated and the analysis was designed to estimate the effect of these factors separately. For a more practical use of the results, a set of probabilistic models has been estimated to characterize the different distributions of fixation durations. Next, the parameters of these models were used to develop a method for measuring the efficiency-level index of the road sign system.

Accid. Anal. &Prev., vol13, pp 101-115, 1981

1981

True

False

True

False

Population Evacuation in Volcanic Eruptions, Floods, and Nuclear Power Plant Accidents: Some Elementary Comparisons.

Perry, Ronald W.

This paper reports a comparative analysis of citizen evacuation responses to three different types of environmental threats: a riverine flood, a volcanic eruption, and the nuclear reaction accident at Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania. While there have been numerous discussions in the theoretical literature regarding the extent to which human response to nuclear and non-nuclear threats are likely to be comparable, to date there have been no empirical studies of the phenomenon. It was found that citizen belief in real situational danger and warnings from authorities were most frequently cited by evacuees as reasons for leaving in both nuclear and non-nuclear incidents. Mass media warnings were infrequently cited as important reasons for evacuating, and social network contacts were relatively more important to evacuation decision making in the natural disasters than at Three Mile Island. For both the natural disasters and the nuclear accidents, most citizens who did not evacuate choose not to do because they did not believe that a real danger existed.

Journal of Community Psychology vol. 11, January 1983

1983

False

Consumer Perceptions of Hazards

Retchans, Arno J.

Researchers in the are of risk assessment are recognizing that risk assessment involves 2 interrelated facets: a technical and a social facet. The importance of the technical facet for product liability prevention programs is well recognized and documented in the design, manufacturing and quality control literature. Recognition of the social facet of product risk assessment is less well, if at all documented. The study presented in this paper develops some empirical information on consumers’ risks perceptions and suggests that this information be incorporated in product liability prevention programs.

False

Advance Information on the Road: A Simulator Study of the Effect of Road Markings

Witt, Harald

Hoyos, Carl G.

Accident statistics and studies of driving behavior have shown repeatedly that curved roads are hazardous. It was hypothesized that the safety of curves could be improved by indicating in advance the course of the road in a more effective way than do traditional road signs. A code of sequences of stripes put on right edge of the pavement was developed to indicate to the driver the radius of the curve ahead. The main characteristic of this code was the frequency of transitions from code elements to gaps between elements. The effect of these markings was investigated on a driving simulator. Twelve subjects drove on simulated roads of different curvature and with different placement of the code in the approach zone. Some positive effect of the advance information could be observed. The subjects drove more steadily, more precisely, and with a more suitable speed profile.

Human Factors ,1970, 321-332

1970

False

True

False

Comprehension and Memory of Instruction Manual Warnings: Conspicuous Print and Pictorial Icons

Young, Stephen L.

Wogalter, Michael S.

Two experiments examined the effects of increasing the noticeability of instruction manual warnings on subsequent comprehension and memory performance. Participants read one of four instruction manuals for a gas-powered electric generator (Experimant1) or a natural-gas oven (Experiment 2) on the assumption that they would later operate the equipment. The appearance of eight different warning messages in the manuals was altered in two ways: (1) the verbal messages were printed either in conspicuous print (larger text with color highlighting) or in plain print (same as the other text), and (2) either the verbal warning messages were accompanied by compatible pictorial icons or the icons were absent. Results showed that participants who received the conspicuous print, icons present manual better comprehended and recalled the verbal warning messages (Experiments 1 and 2) and better identified the semantic meaning of the icons (Experiment 1) than did participants who received the other three manuals. Implications for the design of instruction manual warning are discussed.

False

Effects of Consumption Frequency on Believability and Attitudes Toward Alcohol Warning Labels

J.Craig Andrews

Netemeyer, Richard G.

Durvasula, Srinivas

Alcohol consumption frequency and alcohol warning label type are examined for their influence on label believability, attitude toward the label, and attitude confidence. Finding from a convenience sample of students indicate a differential impact among five warning labels on label believability and label attitudes. As expected, frequent alcohol users find the labels to be significantly less believable and less favorable than occasional/nonusers of alcohol. However, occasional/nonusers of alcohol hold more confident attitudes toward the labels than frequent alcohol users.

Winter1991 volume 25, number 2

1991

False

True

False

On the Influence of a Perception of Danger on the Effectiveness of Warnings for Product Users

Bogett, William R.

Rodriguez, Leticia

This research explores the influence of a perception of danger, defined as unacceptable risk, on the safety related behavior of people, particularly regarding product-borne warnings and safety instruction programs. The results of this study, together with supporting data from the literature, imply that a perception of danger (i.e., an unacceptable risk of loss or injury) must exist in order to positively elevate a person's safety behavior. The results further imply that the probability of incurring loss is more important in the perception of danger than the perceived magnitude of the loss at risk. Towards this end, the one technique which has proven effective thus far is the establishment of a law requiring safe conduct with economic sanctions imposed for violation of the law. Even this has had limited effect unless the law is strictly and consist ently enforced.

False

The Hazard association values of accident-prevention signs

Bresnahan, Thomas

Bryk, Joseph

This study investigates the effectiveness of color coding and signal words (e.g. Danger, Caution, Think) as visual hazard alert cues in accident-prevention signs. Prototype signs which met the specifications of the American National Standard, Z35.1-1968 Specifications for Accident Prevention Signs, were generated for selected sign types. These prototype signs and various experimental versions were presented to Ss who rated each sign with respect to the degree of hazard associated with each sign. Analysis of the results of the controlled association task reveal both color coding and signal words, as specified in Z35.1-1968, to be effective in eliciting differential hazard associations. Potential standardization of accident prevention sign application to all industrial and public environments makes empirical validation of these signs imperative.

True

False

True

False

True

False

Communication Modality as a Determinant of Message Persuasiveness and Message Comprehensibility

Chaiken, Shelly

Eagly, Alice H.

Subject were exposed to either an easy or difficult-to-understand persuasive message presented via the written, audiotaped, or videotaped modality. With difficult messages, both persuasion and comprehension of persuasive material were greater when the message was written as compared with videotaped and audiotape. With easy messages, persuasion was greatest when the message was videotaped, moderate when audiotape, and least when written, but comprehension was equivalent regardless of modality. The persuasion and comprehension findings as well as results on other variables, were discussed within a framework that considered the effect of communication modality on the capacity for effective reception of information as well as on the tendency to yield to information. The communicator’s nonverbal expressions of confidence, manipulated within audiotape and videotaped conditions, did not affect opinions.

False

True

False

True

False

Prevention of Childhood Household Injuries: A Controlled Clinical Trial

Dershewitz, Robert A.

Williamson, John W.

Injuries claim the lives of more children each year than the next six leading pediatric disorders combined, and produce injuries that require medical attention for one in three children. In the preschool age group, 91 percent of these accidents and over one-half the resultant fatalities occur in the home. This paper reports the results of a controlled clinical trial conducted to evaluate the implementation of a health education program intended to reduce the risk of childhood household injuries. The study population was randomly assigned into two demographically comparable groups. Only the experimental group mothers received an educational intervention consisting of a tutorial, home safety-proofing assignments, and follow up. The homes of the two groups were later assessed for hazards during an unannounced visit by an interviewer who did not know to which group each home belonged. A home safety score mean for the two groups was almost identical. The program stimulated heightened interest and stated intent to improve, but did not result in actual reduction of household hazards. Active health education, as used and evaluated in this study, appears to have limited effectiveness when applied to home safety. Approaches such as “passive” measures may offer greater potential for household injury reduction.

Am. J. Public Health 67:1148-1153, 1977

1977

False

True

False

Conditions for a Picture-Superiority Effect on Consumer memory

Childers, Terry L.

Houston, Michael J.

Based on three explanations of imagery on memory, hypotheses regarding the conditions under which pictorial ads or are not remembered better than verbal-only ads are generated and tested. The memorability of brand names semantically related to product class was tested in pictorial versus verbal-only form under various conditions. The results indicate that picture superiority occurs in both immediate and delayed recall tasks when processing is directed at appearance features. Verbal-only stimuli are recalled as well as pictures in immediate recall but become inferior once again in delayed recall, when processing is directed at the semantic content of ads.

False

True

False

True

False

Effectiveness of Product Warnings: Effects of Language Valence, Redundancy and Color

deTurck, Mark A.

Goldhaber, Gerald M.

Based on the social cognitive literature, it was argued that warnings with negatively worded hazard avoidance statements (e.g. ,NEVER) would be more effective than warnings with positively worded (e.g., ALWAYS) hazard avoidance statements. In addition, it was hypothesized that two identical warnings (redundancy) affixed to two different locations would be more effective than a single warning. Results indicated that two warnings with negatively worded hazard statements were noticed more frequently than other conditions. Negatively worded warnings were reported more likely to be seen, read and more likely to be complied with than positively worded warnings. Subjects also indicated that two warnings were more likely to be seen, read and complied with than one warning. Also, warnings with an orange background were more likely to be seen, read and complied with than warnings with red backgrounds. Product warning labels/signs serve to inform consumers about the potential hazards associated with using a given product (deTurck & Goldhaber, in press a). Students of product warnings have devoted considerable research energy toward understanding the various factors that influence the effectiveness of a product warning (see Miller & Lehto ,1986 for an excellent review of this literature). Two factors that have received little or no empirical attention in product warning research are: 1) valence of language, and 2) redundancy. The purpose of this study is to determine how these factors influence the effectiveness of a warning label, and if the effects of these factors are mediated by the color of the warning label.

Journal of Product Liability, Vol.12, pp. 93-102 (1989)

1989

True

False

True

False

Car Starting Sequence and Seat belt Reminders

Dillion, J.

Galer, I.A.R.

Seat belt reminder systems use visual and auditory signals to encourage seat belt use. A sample of drivers reported the order in which they usually performed the operations necessary to enter and start a motor vehicle. They also reported the point at which they fastened their seat belts. The results were used to recommend the point of reminder signal deployment most suited to the existing habits of vehicle drivers.

Applied Ergonomics 1975, 6.4,221-223

1975

False

True

False

Field Testing of Consumer Safety Signs: The Comprehension of Pictorially Presented Messages.

Easterby, R.S.

Hakiel, S.R.

This paper describes one of a series of studies on the investigation of desirable characteristics of a labeling system for use on potentially dangerous household products. The suitability of a range of signs based on symbolic coding of hazards has been investigated. The hazards investigated were :Fire, Poison, Caustic, Electrical and General. The first stage of the programmed involved a survey of all known symbols used for these and similar applications, followed by some preliminary testing to determine a range of symbols for more detailed testing.

Applied Ergonomics 1981, 12.3, 143-152

1981

False

True

False

True

False

True

The Information Processing of Pictures in Print Advertisements

Edell, Julie A.

Staelin, Richard

This study postulates that the presence of a dominant pictures in a print ad can alter a consumer’s cognitive activity while viewing the ad. Using the findings of previous research, we develop a model of the process by which a viewer evaluates, encodes, and stores information found in the ad. This model is tested in a laboratory setting. The results clearly indicate that the way a message is conveyed (pictorially or verbally), whether the viewer is given some reference point for encoding the picture (framed or not framed), and the type of claim made (objective, subjective, or characterization) have a significant effect on the processing of the information presented in the advertisements. These differences in processing are also shown to affect the viewer’s brand attitudes and purchase intentions.

False

An Evaluation of the Texas Driver Improvement Training Program

Ellis, Newton C.

A major problem currently confronting law enforcement agencies is the assessment of the effectiveness of various driver improvement activities. The objectives of this research were to show the effect of the Texas Department of Public Safety driver improvement training program on driving record and to develop a technique for predicting reduction in accident and violation frequencies for the 12-month period following training. The results of this study indicated that the training program has a significant effect on accident and violation frequencies for selected groups. It was also found that it is possible to construct an equation that will predict with some accuracy, reduction in the number of accidents and violations for a 12-month period following training.

Human Factors,1976, 18(4), 327-334

1976

False

An Evaluation of six configurations of the railway crossbuck sign

Ellis, J.G.

Dewar, R.E.

Milloy, D.G.

Two experimental versions of the X-shaped railway crossbuck sign (white with red border, and yellow with black border) and the Canadian standard were compared in a series of four experiments. The angular separation between the blades of the sign was varied (45’ and 90’), and all signs were tested against both a grass-green and a sky-blue background. Standard Canadian regulatory and warning signs were used as distractor stimuli in all experiments. Laboratory measures of classification time, glance legibility and legibility distance indicated the experimental versions to be generally superior to the existing standard. Legibility distance was greater for signs with blades separated by 90’ than for those with 45’angles. A final experiment revealed initial comprehension of the red and white crossbuck to be better than that for yellow and black version.

Ergonomics, 1980, vol.23, no.4, 359-367

1980

False

True

False

True

False

True

A Pilot study of the In-Vehicle Safety Advisory and Warning System (IVSAWS) Driver-Alert Warning System Design

Erlichman, Jason

This pilot study was conducted to obtain preliminary information regarding alternative signaling presentations and symbologies for the Driver-Alert Warning System design within the In-Vehicle Safety Advisory and Warning System Program sponsored by the Federal Highway Administration. Preliminary analysis had been conducted by both Hughes Aircraft company and The University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute. The pilot study concentrated of the driver attributes of understanding, relative effectiveness and signaling format. Thirteen subjects were exposed to the new pictograms prototyped on a Macintosh computer and were requested to verbalize their understanding and preferences in regard to varying signaling characteristics. These characteristics included, a) monochrome, b) color, c) blink, d) tone, e) text message and f)voice message. The results indicated that , as a group, the combination of color, audio tone, text and voice message was the preferred signaling presentation. Gender differences were noted with the female subjects indicating a preference for the combination that included color and blink. All pictograms were recognizable by the subjects and all subjects agreed that IVSAWS would be a substantial aid to the driver.

False

True

False

True

False

Increasing Industrial Safety Practices and Conditions through Posted Feedback

Fellner, Denise J.

Sulzer-Azaroff, Beth

This study examined the effects of posted feedback for improving safety in a paper mill. Data were taken once a week on 24 practices and 7 conditions. In addition, data on injuries with and without lost time were collected monthly. After posting feedback on safe and unsafe conditions for 6 months, more than half of the 17 divisions of the mill showed improvement. Similarly, safe practices increased after feedback was provided for them for 2 months. Most importantly, injuries were cut in half.

Journal Safety Research , Vol.15 ,pp 7-21, 1984

1984

False

True

False

The ability of two lay groups to judge product warning effectiveness

Frantz, J. Paul

Miller, James M.

Main, Bruce W.

How well can lay people assess the effectiveness or “adequacy” of product warnings without assistance from expert testimony? To begin to answer this question. Two studies were conducted to determine the extent to which law students and engineering students could assess the relative effectiveness of two drain opener warning label designs. In the first experiment, only 18 of the 38 engineering students (47%) correctly identified the warning label design that had , in a previous study, been shown to be significantly more effective with similar subjects who actually used the product. In addition, these subjects did not accurately predict the likelihood that their peers would read and comply with the precautions. In the second experiment, only 14 of the 42 law students (33%) correctly identified the more effective of two label designs. This research contradicts several legal authors who postulate that juries are capable of determining the effectiveness of a warning unaided by well-founded expert testimony. More specifically, these studies do not support the assertion that the “knowledge of ordinary people” is sufficient to 1) distinguish between warning that differ in their behavioral effectiveness and 2) accurately predict the likelihood that people such as themselves will read and heed safety instructions when using product.

False

True

False

Engineering and law students

Communicating a safety-critical limitation of an infant-carrying product: The effect of product design and warning salience

Frantz, J. Paul

Miller, James M.

A field experiments was conducted to determine how the features of a product and the salience of its warnings affect potential purchasers’ perceptions of a safety-critical product attribute. The experimental product was an infant carrier, which represents a class of products known to be inappropriately used as infant car seats. Sixty-two subjects were asked to examine and select an infant car seat/carrier product from a group of four infant-carrying products. Dependent measures included the subjects’ knowledge that the experimental product was not designed to protect an infant in an auto accident and their attention to various warnings. Removing a potentially confusing product feature did not significantly reduce the proportion of subjects who mistakenly thought the product was designed for use as a car seat. However, collectively, the features of the product prompted more than a third of the subjects to incorrectly assess the safety-critical limitations of the product. Increasing the warning’s salience significantly increased the proportion of subjects who noticed and read it, but only in the most conspicuous condition was there and increase in the proportion of subjects who correctly recognized the product’s limitations

International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 11 (1993) 1-2

1993

False

True

False

True

False

Must be the context be considered when applying generic safety symbols: A Case study in Flammable Contact Adhesives

Frantz, J. Paul

Miller, James M.

Lehto, Mark R.

Several household fires have occurred in the United States and Canada when flammable contact adhesive vapors were ignited by nearby pilot lights. While the Consumer Product Safety Commission banned the sale of extremely flammable adhesive in the U.S., its Canadian counterparts have focused more attention on product labeling. This field experiment examined the impact of the flame and poison warning symbols prescribed by the Canadian Government for a flammable adhesive. The results suggest that although the generic meaning of these two symbols are well understood, people have difficulty inferring the specific safety precautions most necessary for this particular product, apparently because they do not realize that adhesive vapors, rather than the adhesive itself, pose the fire hazard. Users also tended to overestimate the significance of the toxicity hazard. This incorrect assessment was corrected for a subset of subjects by reading the product specific text provided on the back of the container. Implications for the design and evaluation of safety symbols are provided as are recommendations for modifying several features of the adhesive’s label.

Journal of Safety Research Vol.22, pp.147-161, 1991

1991

False

True

False

An ergonomics approach to the problem of high vehicles striking low bridges

Galer, Margaret

The incident of high vehicles striking low bridges has increased considerably since about 1970. Now, between 400-500 such accidents occur every year. This study investigated two possible reasons for the accidents. These were drivers’ knowledge of their vehicle heights, and drivers’ understanding of the low bridge warning signs. Drivers’ opinions of ways of preventing the accidents were also obtained. Only 12% of drivers were correct in their estimate of their vehicle height and 27% were within 3 in (76mm) of the correct height. The majority of drivers made estimates which erred on the ‘safe’ side. 21% of drivers did not understand the road sign that shows ‘Headroom at hazard ahead’. The ways of preventing high vehicles striking low bridges most popular with the drivers were those which provided them with information which was most directly relevant, i.e., whether or not the vehicle would get safety under the bridge.

Applied Ergonomics 1980,11.1, 43-46

1980

False

Warning Messages: Will the Consumer Bother To Look?

Godfrey, Sandra S.

Allender, Laurel

One way to encourage the safe use of potentially hazardous household products is to provide a warning message to the label. But will the consumer bother to look at the message? In experiment 1 subjects were asked to imagine themselves purchasing a number of household products. They then rated the products on skin-contact hazard, inhalation hazard, swallowing hazard and overall hazard. They also rated the likelihood that they would look for a warning and how familiar they were with the product. In experiment 2 more detailed information about familiarity with products was collected along with hazard ratings. Together the results of the two experiments indicate that subjects do discriminate products on overall hazard. They also rate skin contact hazard lowest, inhalation hazard intermediate and swallowing hazard highest. The more hazardous they perceive a product, the more likely they will look for a warning. Further, females are more likely to look for warnings than males. Also, perceived hazard varies inversely with familiarity. The principal conclusion is that factors such as perceived hazard, familiarity and sex influence the consumers decision to look for a warning message on the labels of potentially hazardous household products.

False

Warnings: Do they make a difference?

Godfrey, Sandra S.

Rothstein, Pamela R.

Laughery, Kenneth R.

Four experiments were conducted in order to determine whether warnings are effective and to identify factors that influence their effectiveness. Warnings were posted on a copy machine, a public telephone, a water fountain, and two sets of doors. The first two warnings were effective in that most people did not use the copy machine and the telephone when they had the warnings on them. The warning on the water fountain was not effective when a single, small warning was used. When that warning plus a larger , more forceful warning was used, most people did not drink from the fountain. The warnings on the doors were not obeyed when a convenient alternative exit was not available. However, when the warning directed people to a nearby, convenient exit, most of them obeyed it. Warning with a low cost of compliance are apparently more effective. The results indicate that warnings can be effective, but not unless they are well designed in appearance and content.

False

True

False

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Warnings under Prevailing Working Conditions

Gomer, Frank E.

Due to a lack of published test results from which to draw conclusions about the effectiveness of warnings under different working conditions, I conducted a field study as an aid in the formulation of expert opinion during the discovery phase of pending product-liability litigation. My intent was to measure the effectiveness of a label which warned of the risk of delayed lung disease. The design of the warning conformed to the existing requirements for the period of interest – the mid 1960s. To replicate the prevailing conditions in the plant at the time that exposure to the hazard occurred, appropriate engineering and administrative controls purposefully were omitted. The warnings failed to cause a significant reduction in the incidence of unsafe behavior.

False

Driving Offenders and the Defensive Driving Course – An Archival Study

Hill, Peter S.

Jamieson, Bruce D.

Two hundred and seventy-five drivers who had been required by court order to attend a Defensive Driving Course (DDC) were compared on six post-treatment driving measures obtained from archival data with 275 drivers who also had had a court appearance and standard treatment. The DDC group showed greater reductions in serious and accident-promoting convictions but no greater reduction in accidents when compared with the standard treatment comparison group.

The Journal of Psychology 1978, 98, 117-127

1978

False

The Influence of Audio-Video Instruction on Consumers’ Selection of Nutritious Food Products

Jessen, Diane M.

Wogalter, Michael S.

The present research investigates procedures for educating people on the use of nutritional labeling. The methods incorporate instructional audio-video media in conjunction with active decision making and immediate feedback. Three groups of participants (audio-video only, audio-video plus active decision making/feedback, and no-instruction control) were asked to chose the more nutritious products from pairs of similar products based on the information on the labels. The results showed that audio-video media improved the accuracy of the product-pair selections and nutrition knowledge. No additional benefit of active decision making and feedback was found. A follow-up product choice test given approximately one week later showed that performance for the two audio-video conditions was maintained, but there were no differences between conditions primarily because of a nonsignificant increase by the control group. However, the follow-up testing showed that the two wudio-video groups had greater nutrition knowledge that the control group. Additional analyses showed that demographic variables such as gender, occupation, income level, health status, and special diet were related to product-choice and nutrition test performance. This research advances empirical work in this area, first, by showing and effective and efficient way to educate the public on nutrition and food label information, and second, by employing a performance measure (consumer choice) that might be useful in future research examining differences between food label formats and education strategies.

Human factors 36th Annual Meeting – 1992

1992

False

Prevention of Accidental Falls in Infancy By Counseling Mothers

Kravitz, Harvey

This article summarizes the results of a two-year study of falls from elevated surfaces in infancy in a suburban pediatric practice

False

Effects of Warning Explicitness on Product Perceptions

Laughery, Kenneth R.

Stanush, Julie A.

A common assumption of manufactures is that explicit warning labels will deter consumers from purchasing products. This study explored people’s reactions to explicit and non explicit warning labels, where explicitness refers to how specifically the potential injury consequences were described. 108 subjects completed a 12-item questionnaire for each of nine familiar consumer products. The question covered the severity of potential injury product familiarity, product hazards and dangerousness, manufacturer’s concerns, and potential purchasing decisions. Results suggest that products are perceived as more dangerous and related injuries as more severe when warnings are explicit. Also, with explicit warning subjects report that they better understand the hazards, that they are being provided with all the necessary safety information, and that manufacturers are more concerned about safety. There was no clear indication that more explicit warnings either deter people from purchasing a product or increase the likelihood of a purchase.

False

True

False

Effects of Explicitness in Conveying Severity Information in Product Warnings

Laughery, Kenneth R.

Rowe- Hallbert, Anna L.

Young, Stephen L.

Kent P. Vaubel

Laux, Lila F.

Manufacturers typically provide consumers with a warning message on the label of potentially hazardous products in order to encourage their safe use. Warnings often vary in explicitness and severity, where explicitness refers to the specificity of the stated injury consequences and severity refers to the harshness of the consequences. This study examined the nature of the relationship between explicitness and severity and explored changes in people’s perceptions of four common consumer products as a result of exposure to warnings that varied on these two dimensions. The results show that explicitness and severity are related. The results also demonstrated that exposure to explicit warnings produced an increase in rated severity of injury and intent to act cautiously with a product. Overall this study suggest that, unless they are explicit, warnings on common consumer products may not change perceptions and subsequent intentions to act cautiously.

Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1991

1991

False

Explicitness of consequence information in warnings

Laughery, Kenneth R.

Vaubel, Kent P.

Young, Stephen L.

Brelsford, John W.

Four experiments were carried out to assess effects of product warning explicitness on purchase preferences and caution in use. Explicitness was defined as the specificity or detail with which potential injury consequence were described. All experiments employed a paradigm in which warnings varying in explicitness were described for familiar products. Subjects rated various perceptions of the products, purchase preferences, and intent to act cautiously in using the product. Results indicated that more explicit warnings were associated with greater levels of perceived dangerousness, hazard understanding, injury severity, and manufacturers’ concern. While explicit warnings were also associated with an increased intent to act cautiously in using products, no clear relationship was found between explicitness and purchase preferences. It is recommended that product warnings should be explicit regarding injury consequences, especially where injuries may be severe. Given such information, product users, particularly those less familiar with a product are more likely to exercise greater caution during use. Further, manufacturers; concern that explicit warnings may negatively impact sales appears to be unwarranted.

Safety Science, 16 (1993) 597-613

1993

False

Representation of product hazards in consumer memory

Retchans, Arno J.

Hastak, Manoj

Twenty consumer subjects were probed for their hazard related knowledge structures. A sequential free-elicitation procedure attempted to differential between linguistic thoughts and image-based thoughts. These thoughts were nest classified as episodic or semantic so as to provide some indication of the content of the know ledge structures. Findings suggest that research on information representation will almost always be incomplete if it focuses on linguistic information only and that the research should not exclusively focus on representation in semantic memory. Recommendations for future research are provided.

False

Wisconsin Driver Improvement Program: A Treatment-Control Evaluation

Fuchs, Camil

The Wisconsin Driver Improvement-Individual Counseling Program provides counseling by analysis for drivers identified as habitual violators, i.e., drivers who accumulate a certain number of demerit points in a given period of time or who are about to have their licenses reinstated following a revocation/suspension. In order to evaluate the program, 10% of the eligible drivers are randomly selected to constitute a control group. Following some necessary adjustments to account for factors detected during the study, the actual numbers of drivers were 84,300 in the treatment group and 10,768 in the control group. No overall differences were found between the treatment and control groups in term of subsequent conviction and accident rates. Similarly, no beneficial effects of program attendance were found when drivers were grouped by the two reasons for referral or when subsequent driving exposure was divided into 1-year periods to test changes over time. Additional analyses, including comparisons of standardized rates and an evaluation of the associations between demographic characteristics and driving behavior, also showed no effect. The article emphasizes the fact that use of a randomized control group gives this evaluation reliability and persuasiveness that cannot be obtained by other means. Scientifically acceptable evaluations of educational programs are essential in order to enhance the programs’ effectiveness and to improve traffic safety.

Journal of Safety Research, Fall1980/Volume 12/ November 3

1980

False

Communications – complex problem solving: Design and development of a signage for the Columbus international airport in Columbus, Ohio

Cook, Tim R.

Smith, David B.

Experience with the development of a proposed expansion to a major metropolitan airport revealed a need to analyze the terminal and terminal approaches as a complex communications environment. Available Human Factors information and tracking studied were used to develop a signing concept that highlights and humanizes point of personal interaction with terminal complex. The paper will describe the designer’s approach to making design decisions based on available human factor data. The limitation of this data base will be discussed, and studies conducted to elaborate or supplement the base described. Slides illustrating these studies and the proposed interior and exterior signing systems will be shown. The intermediate concepts (developed during the evolution of the final concept) will be used to illustrate the stages through which the work moves toward final solution.

False

Subjective and objective risk distribution A comparison and its implication for accident prevention

Dunn, J. G.

The subjective estimates of risk made by twenty-five chain-saw operators were compared with an objective risk distribution from reported accident frequencies. There was significant agreement amongst the subjects on the distribution of risk, but very little correlation between the subjects’ estimates and an objective distribution. The implications of such a mis-math are discussed with respect to accident prevention.

Occupational Psychology, 1972, 46, 183-187

1972

False

Compulsory Seat Belt Usage and Driver Risk-Talking Behavior

Evans, Leonard

Wasielewaski, Paul

Von Buseck, Calvin R.

The danger compensation principle contends that the use of such vehicle safety features as seat belt may induce drivers to take greater risk. To test for this hypothesized effect, observational data on seat belt usage risk talking were collected on 4812 drivers in Ontario, Canada, where seat belt is requires by law. The hypothesized effect would result in higher risk taken by drivers compelled to wear seat belts, as indicated by closer following in freeway driving. Such an effect by observing the difference between user and nonuser following headways and comparing it with a corresponding difference previously for Michigan, which no mandatory usage law. The comparison provided no evidence of danger compensation behavior in car following. It was therefore concluded that this study presents no evidence that the safety benefits of seat belts would be diminished or neutralized by greater driver risk taking.

Human Factors, 1982, 24(1), 41-48

1982

False

Fault trees: Sensitivity of Estimated Failure Probabilities to Problem Representation

Fischhoff, Baruch

Slovic, Paul

Lichtenstein, Sarah

Fault trees represent problem situations by organizing “things that could go wrong” into functional categories. Such trees are essential devices for analyzing and evaluating the fallibility of complex systems. They follow many different formats, sometimes by design, other times inadvertently. The present study examined the effect of varying three aspects of fault tree structure on the evaluation of a fault tree for the event “a car fails to start.” The fault trees studied had four to eight branches, including “battery change insufficient,” “fuel system defective,” and “all other problems.” Major results were as follows: (a) People were quite insensitive to what had been left out of a fault tree, (b) increasing the amount of detail for the tree as a whole or just for some branches produced small effects on perceptions, and (c) the perceived importance of a particular branch was increased by presenting it in pieces (i.e., as two separate component branches). Insensitivity to omissions was found with both college student and experienced garage mechanics. Aside from their relevance for the study of problem solving, such results may have important implications for (a) how best to inform the public about technological risk and to involve it in policy decisions and (b) how experts should perform fault tree analyses of the risk from technological systems.

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 1978, Vol. 4, No. 2, 330-344

1978

False

Eye movement and reaction time measures of the effectiveness of caution signs

Galluscio, Eugene H.

Fjelde, Kristin

The effectiveness of various forms of caution signs was evaluated using saccadic eye movements and reaction time as the department variables. Both dependent measures show that cautions signs requiring specific positive actions are processed more slowly and less efficiently than signs requiring avoidance behaviors. Additionally, the data show that changing the order of the “consequences” and “instructions” elements of the caution signs did not influence the number of saccades, the speed, or accuracy of interpretation. The research shows that saccadic eye movement may be an effective method for evaluating the design of caution signs.

Safety Science, 16 (1993) 627-635

1993

False

True

False

Perceptual Discriminability as a Basic for Selecting Graphic Symbols

Geiselman, Ralph E.

Landee, Betty M.

Christen, Francois G.

The purpose of this research was to develop a performance-based criterion for selecting among alternative symbols to be used in graphic displays. The specific criterion developed was an index of perceptual discriminability. Through regression analyses of an intersymbol similarity-rating matrix, it was concluded that symbols are judged more or less similar on the basis of the number of shared versus unique configural attributes (an X, a triangle, etc.), as opposed to primitive attributes (number of lines, arcs, etc.). An easy-to-use discriminability-index formula was derived from the regression analysis involving the configural attributes, and this formula was used to predict the result of an experiment involving a search for specific symbols embedded in an array. Indices obtained from a formula such as the one developed here could be used as part of the basis for choosing among alternative candidate symbols for inclusion in an existing symbol domain.

Human Factors, 1982, 24(3), 329-337

1982

False

True

False

Representing expert knowledge for instructional system design: a case study

Gordon, Sallie E.

Kinghorn, Rhonda A.

Schmierer, Kim A.

This paper describes the process by which an AI knowledge engineering technique was used for performing knowledge within the context of Instructional System Design. The method is a type of cognitive task analysis in which conceptual graphs are using several complementary knowledge acquisition methods. The graphs can be used to explicitly represent a variety of knowledge types including semantic, rule, and implicit knowledge. We outline the process by which we applied the method to represent expert knowledge for instructional design in the domain of engineering mechanics, and describe modifications and lessons learned from the application.

Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting-1991

1991

False

Posted Warning Placard: Effects on College Students Knowledge of Alcohol Facts and Hazards

Kalsher, Michael J.

Clarke, Ateven W.

Wogalter, Michael S.

Federal legislation requires a warning label on all alcoholic beverage containers sold in the U.S. However, this method of communicating the hazards of alcohol consumption is lacking because (a) it is not designed to reach the underage population, (b) the warning label is small and contained limited information, and (c) the information is not communicated when alcoholic beverages are not served in their original container (e.g., by the glass). The present study was determined if a posted placard would effectively convey alcohol-related information to college students. A warning sign containing this information was field-tested in eight fraternities assigned to conditions of a Solomon four-group (pre-post) design. In the warning intervention conditions, signs were posted at various locations in fraternity houses. A questionnaire was distributed that assessed knowledge of five categories of hazards associated with alcohol consumption. Results indicated that, in general, students were knowledgeable about alcohol consumption facts and hazards, but that knowledge of alcohol-related information significantly increased as a result of exposure to the warning.

Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting-1991

1991

True

False

True

False

True

False

College

The Acquisition of Procedure from Texas: A Production-System Analysis of Transfer of Training

Kieras, David E.

Bovair, Susan

Learning a cognitive skill from written instructions can be viewed as consisting of converting the propositional content of the written material into a representation of procedural knowledge, such as production rules. In a transfer of training experiment, subjects learned from step-by-step instructions a series of related procedures, in different trainings orders, for operating a simple device. The strong between-procedure transfer effects were predicted by a simple model of transfer in which individual production rules can be transferred or re-used in the representation of a new procedure if they had been used in a previously learned procedure. Apparently, this transfer mechanism acts on declarative propositional representations of the production rules, suggesting that it is more similar to comprehensive processes than to conventional practice mechanisms, or to Anderson’s learning principles (1982, Psychological Review, 89, 369-406; 1983, The architecture of cognition, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press).

Journal of Memory and Language 25, 507-524 (1986)

1986

False

Managing the Production of Technical Manuals: Recent Trends

Killingworth, Jimme

Eiland, Kimberly

The demand of quality technical manuals has increased. A survey of Industry reveals that organizations are developing new techniques of management and are shifting old priorities in order to integrate production, technical writing, and marketing in an effort to produce better manuals. Companies are seeking to specify as much as possible the exact audiences for their manuals, and are writing and testing with users in mind. To facilitate revision and to cut costs, they are automating the production process.

IEEE Transactions on Professional Communications, Vol. PC 29, No.2, June 1986

1986

False

The Production Method in Sign Design Research

Martin Krampen

Every definition of the sign concept reflects the basic ideological attitude of its author. In essence there are two schools of thought: a materialistic and an idealistic one. The materialistic school shows a certain optimism with respect to man’s ability to live in contact with the “real world”. The idealists hold that this contact is impossible or very complicated. No attempt shall be made here to “prove” the merit of one or the other these two attitudes except for hinting at the fact that man during the history of science and technology has apparently done quite well in his contact with the real world and that for him in 1969 the moon is no fiction of his imagination. Materialists are convinced that the material world is depicted in some structurally related form in man’s thinking about it. These “thoughts” in turn may take on material existence as “signs”. A sign is, however, not limited to the accumulation of material, link or paint, on a surface. It is not the particular depiction by these materials of a pedestrian or an automobile. The material depiction is only the envelope of an abstraction, of a class, category or concept of those events in the real world that became depicted in man’s thinking. A particular version of a “painted” pedestrian or automobile is the material existence of the sign for the general thought category “pedestrian” or “automobile” which in turn reflects many instances of material pedestrians or automobiles moving about in our cities.

False

Frequency of Anti-Collision Observing Responses by Solo Pilots as a Function of Traffic Density, ATC Traffic Warnings, and Competing Behavior

Lewis, Mark F.

Eighteen instrument-rated pilots were flown in 2-hr simulated solo missions during which the frequency of traffic, ATC warnings, and ATC clearances were varied, while the visibility of the target was held constant at 100%. In order to observe the target, the pilot was required to make a simple, overt observing response; i.e.., the pilot had to press a button on his control wheel. If traffic was present, a burst of flashes became visible through the windshield. Button presses in the absence of traffic produced no stimulus. Each pilot was advised that his IFR mission occurred under VFR conditions and that it was his primary responsibility to maintain visual vigilance, although ATC would endeavor to warn him of possible conflicting traffic. Two values of traffic frequency were programmed independently of two values of ATC traffic warning frequency. The frequency of competing behavior was varied by independent scheduling of two values of ATC clearance frequency. The data revealed main effects from ATC clearances and from traffic warnings. Significant interactions were obtained for clearances by traffic warnings and for traffic by traffic warnings.

Aerospace Med. 44(9): 1048-1050, 1973

1973

False

True

False

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory

Lichtenstein, Sarah

Slovic, Paul

Fischoff, Baruch

Mark Layman

Barbara Combs

A series of experiments studied how people judge the frequency of death from various causes. The judgments exhibited a highly consistent but systematically biased subjective scale of frequency. Two kinds of bias were identified: (a) a tendency to overestimate small frequencies and underestimate larger ones, and (b) a tendency to exaggerate the frequency of some specific causes and to underestimate the frequency of others, at any given level of objective frequency. These biases were traced to a number of possible sources, including disproportionate exposure, memorability, or imaginability of various events. Subjects were unable to correct for these sources of bias when specifically instructed to avoid them. Comparisons with previous laboratory studies are discussed, along with methods for improving frequency judgments and the implications of the present findings for the management hazards.

False

The effect of Self-Confidence and Anxiety on Information Seeking in Consumer Risk Reduction

Locander, William B.

Hermann, Peter W.

The authors examine the effect of generalized self-confidence, anxiety, and specific self-confidence on consumers’ tendency to seek information sources as a means of reducing purchasing uncertainty. Consumers were asked to rate their tendency to seek six information sources for each of five products. The products differed in their degree of performance and social risk. The findings suggest that specific self-confidence about the product decision is significantly related to information seeking.

False

Paragraph of Pictographs: The use of Non-Verbal Instructions for Equipment

Marcel, Tony

Barnard, Philip

This paper is concerned with pictorial means of communicating instructions for the use of equipment. The problems differ from those involved in development of discrete symbols, in that instructions require representations of states, actions, and conditional relations comparable to those represented in natural language. Accordingly, our approach concentrates on analogues of linguistic factors and pictorial aspects of sequence and context.

False

True

False

Performance Efficiency and Injury Avoidance as a Function of Positive and Negative Incentives

Mckelvey, Robert K.

Engen, Trygg

Peck, Marjorie B.

In real life, hazard detection is often a secondary function to the task in which a person is engaged, a factor not considered in many previous studies of vigilance. This study investigated subjects’ attentiveness to a warning device and their care in manipulating a power tool in a stimulated working environment under various incentive conditions. The subjects’ primary task was manipulation of a modified power punch press; at the same time they were to respond to a warning signal indicating possible press malfunction (secondary task) and to avoid manipulative errors that could cause injury (“accident”). Four groups of 10 subjects each were tested under 4 different incentive conditions. Group 1 was paid an hourly wage; group 2 was paid on the basis of production; group 3 was also paid for production, but given the negative incentive of a 5-minute equipment stoppage for failure to respond to the warning signal; group 4 was the same as group 3, with an additional 5-minute equipment shutdown for each “accident”. Results showed that each of the 3 variables, work output, vigilance, and accident susceptibility, was significantly affected by varying the pattern of reinforcement. The main finding was that a balanced presentation of positive and negative incentives, as in groups 3 and 4, increased subjects’ hazard awareness without significantly sacrificing performance efficiency. Under these conditions, subjects worked faster, but more carefully, with increased alertness to a visual warning signal.

False

True

False

Pediatric Counseling and Subsequent Use of Smoke Detectors

Miller, Robert E. Miller

Blatter, Mark M.

Wucher, Frederick

Effects of a brief educational and purchase program concerning home fires and smoke detectors by two pediatricians were compared to “routine” counseling without such a program using two groups each of 120 parents of well children. Inspection performed four to six weeks after the office visits showed that of 55 experimental group parents without detectors prior to the program, 26 purchased and 19 installed them correctly. No control group parents did so. (Am J Public Health 1982: 72:392-393)

False

Utility of Drug Leaflets for Elderly Consumers

Morris, Louis A.

Olins, Nancy J.

A mail survey of 1650 elderly consumers evaluated prescription drug leaflets for antihypertensives, tranquilizers, and arthritis medicines. Of those who said they received the leaflet, 95 percent read it, 76 percent kept it, and 56 percent discussed it with another person. Respondents taking antihypertensive medicine were more apt to keep the leaflet and say they learned new information from it. Those taking tranquilizers were less likely to say the leaflet made them feel better about using the drug. (Am J Public Health 1984; 74: 157-158.)

False

A Survey of the Effects of Oral Contraceptive Patient Information

Morris, Louis A.

Mazis, Michael

Gordon, Evelyn

A nationwide survey of 1720 current and 949 former oral contraceptive (OC) users gathered information about receipt, readership, knowledge, opinions, and reported behavioral changes induced by two forms of patient oriented OC information. A substantial majority of women said they received and read the patient insert dispensed with the drug. However, only about one third of pill users said that they received the longer informational brochure supplied by physicians on patient request. Directions for use and side effects were the most often recalled information. Physician-patient contact patterns were reported as generally unaffected by written patient information. Respondents preferred the longer informational brochure to the insert. Survey results have implications for recently proposed changes in required OC patient information and for the development of patient information on additional prescription drugs.

Jama 238:2504-2508:1977

1977

False

True

False

A study of the Role of Beliefs and Intentions in Consistency Restoration

Olshavsky, Richard W.

Summers, John O.

The relationships among beliefs, knowledge, intentions and behavior of cigarette smokers were studied. The results suggest consistency is being restored by stating an intention to quit or by espousing beliefs, some of which evidence factual or reasoning distortions.

False

Manufacturers’ Product Information: Is it transferred to the Second Owner of a Product?

Rhoades. Timothy P.

Frantz, J. Paul

Hopp, Karen M.

This paper presents data regarding the availability of the original owner’s manual in situations where used products are purchased through dealers. The specific products studied were automobiles, outboard boats and motors, snow blowers and power lawn mowers. For each of these products, a survey of used product dealers was conducted to determine the proportion of used products that are accompanied by the owner’s manual. When available, characteristics of the used products, such as an obvious location to store the owner’s manual, the model year, and the price of the product were noted during the survey. This research indicates that, in many instances, owner’s manuals will not be transferred to subsequent owners of the product.

False

Factors Associated with Observed Safety Belt Use

Robertson, Leon S.

O’Nell, Brian

Wixom, Charles W.

Death and injury in motor vehicle crashed can be greatly reduced by the use of seat belts. Studies based on claimed use result in inflated estimates of use and questionable correlations with social and other factors. This study of visually observe driver’s use or nonuse of safety belts found education, comfort and convenience ratings of safety belts, having had a friend injured in a crash, and not smoking while driving to be additively associated with safety belt use. Having had a friend killed in a crash was not related to belt use. Fear being disabled or disfigured appears to be more conscious and motivational than fear of death in a crash.

False

Rating the Risks

Slovic, Paul

Fischhoff, Baruch

Linchtenstein, Sarah

People respond to the hazards they perceive. If their perceptions are faulty, efforts at public and environmental protection are likely to be misdirected. In order to improve hazard management, a risk assessment industry has developed over the last decade which combines the efforts of physical, biological, and social scientists in an attempt to identify hazards and measure the frequency and magnitude of their consequences.

False

Exploring Compatibility with Words and Pictures

Smith, Sidney L.

A group of 92 male engineers, with comparison groups of 80 women and 55 human factors specialists, responded to an 18-item questionnaire covering various problems of potentially ambiguous display-control relations, labeling and word usage. Some questions elicited strong commonality of response. Others illustrate response variability and group differences. Developed as a teaching aid, a questionnaire of this kind can also be used as a tool for exploring compatibility relations.

Human Factors, 1981,23(3), 305-315

1981

False

True

False

True

False

men and women

Engineering, human factors specialists

Correlates of Consumer Safety Behavior

Staelin, Richard

Weinstein, Alan G.

Almost every report on product safety is quick to point out that approximately 1 out of every 10 persons in the U.S. pr 20 million people annually suffer a consumer product related injury requiring medical attention. With the technology explosion which has produced a myriad of new, sophisticated consumer products this accident rated could increase markedly. How can the frequency of consumer product related injuries be reduced? Three major approaches have been suggested. The first stress the responsibility of industry to reduce accidents by improved product design and dissemination of safety related information. The second places the responsibility on government agencies to insure minimal safety standards by regulation, while the third assumes that consumers must watch out for themselves.

False

Risk Communication: Absolute versus Relative Expressions of Low-Probability Risks

Stone, Eric R.

Yates, J.Frank

Parker, Andrew M.

According to most prescriptive decision rules, formally equivalent methods of communicating risk information should have identical effects on risk-taking behavior, even if the pertinent displays are different. The present work takes two methods commonly employed in epidemiology, incidence rates and relative risks, and examines their comparative effects on risk-avoidant behavior. In experiment 1, we presented 108 undergraduates with information about risks associated with different brands of tires and toothpaste and displayed that information either as incidence rates or as a relative risk ratio. For the tires products, subjects given the relative risk format were willing to pay more money for a safer product than were subjects given the incidence rate format. There were, however, no differences between the two conditions for the toothpaste product. Experiment 2 evaluated two potential explanations for the difference in findings between the two products. The majority of the data supported an “editing” hypothesis, which suggests that extreme low-probability risks, such as those associated with tire blowouts, are edited to “essentially nil risk,” while more moderate risks, such as those associated with periodontal disease, are considered to be small but significant. These findings are discussed in the context to fuzzy trace theory and related models, which suggest that people reason on the basis of simplified representations rather than on the literal information available.

False

Consumer Behavior and Product Injuries

Tokuhata, George K,

Colflesh, Virgina

Smith, Martha

Krishnan Ramaswamy

Edward Digon

Within a random sample of 3907 households with 11453 individuals, 962 product injuries were reported for an annual incidence of 84 per 1000 persons. Households reporting injuries were more likely to purchase reconditioned products or products in a discount store and more likely to assemble product parts and repair damages products themselves. Use of antihistamines, tranquilizers, diet pills, and hormones was associated with injuries. Decision-making by either wife or husband alone was also related. Cigarette smoking, beer drinking, and increased physical activities were conducive to injuries in adults while frequent play with other children and play in the kitchen or the workshop were conducive to injuries in children. Injured persons tend to consider “usefulness” more important in a product than “quality” or “appearance.”

False

Components of Perceived Risk for Consumer Products

Vaubel, Kent P.

Young, Stephen L.

The present study examined the underlying dimensions associated with perceived risk for consumer products. Eighty undergraduate students evaluated 40 products using seventeen rating questions. Principal components analysis was then performed on the ratings. Result indicated the presence of three underlying components or dimensions along which the products varied. The first component dealt with qualitative aspects of the risks associated with a product, such as the degree to which potential hazards were known (or knowable) and the immediacy of their onset. The second component concerned subjects’ familiarity with the product. The third component was associated with quantitative aspects of the risks and reflected notions about the magnitude of the potential harm (in terms of the number of potential victims) that might be incurred as a result of using the product. Subsequent regression analyses revealed that each dimension was significantly related to subject’s rated intent to act cautiously with a product. Overall, these results suggest that people do not perceive consumer products unidimensionally. Rather, such perception are best conceptualized as reflecting multiple underlying facets.

Proceeding of the Human Factors Society 36th annual meeting 1992

1992

False

Engineering and law students

What makes a manual look easy to use?

Angiolillo, Joel S.

Roberts, Linda A.

What makes a customer manual look attractive and easy to use? How do typeface, margins, tabs, color, style of headings, and so on, contribute to this perception? We believe that a manual that looks hard to use may discourage users from even trying to use it. Why struggle to make a manual accurate, well-written, and complete if users never turn to it the first place? In the study reported here, eighteen subjects ranked six difference customer manuals on nineteen dimensions, for example, use of color and overall attractiveness. The manuals were actual production manuals that were written to be used by full-time administrators of complicated electronic equipment. Analyses of the data clearly show that those features that help the user to find information (i.e., tabs, headings, and impression of good organization) are important in determents of perceived ease of use.

Proceeding of the Human Factors Society 35th annual meeting 1991

1991

False

True

False

True

False

Effect of location and Presentation Format on Attention to and Compliance with Product Warnings and Instructions

Frantz, J. Paul

Eighty subjects used a drain opener with one of four labels in an experiment to determine the effect of safety information location relative to usage instructions and the effect of presentation format of usage instructions (prose vs. numbered list) on the attention to and compliance with on-product warnings and instructions. Contrary to current/recommended practice, substantially more subjects read and complied with warnings that appeared in the “Directions for Use” rather than the “Precautions” section. On average, moving a statement from the “Precautions” into the “Directions” increased the reading rate from 37% to 89% and the compliance rate from 48% to 83%. The presentation format did not affect overall label effectiveness. This research is particularly applicable to labeling guidelines and regulations calling for precautions to be separated from usage instructions. This research also illustrates the value of a user-oriented label design approach facilitated by a technique developed for analyzing existing/prototype labels.

Journal of Safety Research Vol.24, pp131-154, 1993

1993

False

True

False

An Empirical Study of Consumers’ Sensitivity to the wording of Affirmative Disclosure Massage

Funkhouser, G.Ray

The purpose of this paper is to present the results of a field experimental study which tested consumer comprehension of three versions of an affirmative disclosure massage. The versions differed in relatively slight and subtle ways, yet produced significant differences in consumer comprehension and understanding of the message. The result of the study suggest that the majority of consumers are quite able to comprehend and understand simple product information messages but are highly sensitive to differences and even subtle nuances in messages, underscoring the need for empirical testing of any such message that is intended to affect consumer beliefs or behavior.

False

True

False

Hierarchical task analysis for ergonomics research

Hodgkinson, G.P.

Crawshaw, C.M.

Hierarchical task analysis, the procedure originally devised by Annett and his colleagues for determining training needs, was applied to the task of mixing sound in order to identify the human factors requirements that need to be taken into consideration in the design and evaluation of sound mixing consoles. A number of ergonomics problems were identified and potential solutions tentatively suggested. Following the task analysis a comparative simulation study was devised in order to test the hypothesis that the functional grouping of control knobs, with increased spacing between functional groups relative to the spacing within functional groups, is superior to functional grouping per se. Reaction time data strongly support the hypothesis. This suggests that the present practice in mixing console design of arranging control panels so that the components are spaced equidistant or quasi-equidistant, irrespective of their functions, is detrimental to operator performance. The role and importance of task analysis in human factors research is discussed. Hierarchical task analysis is advocated on the grounds that the result task description facilitates the systematic identification of ergonomics problems.

Applied Ergonomics 1985, 16.4, 289-299

1985

False

Connoted Quantity of Food-Label Modifier Terms

Kalsher, Michael J.

Wogalter, Michael S.

Gillbert, Carolyn M.

This descriptive study examined a set of modifier terms (e.g., reduced, enriched) that might be used to indicate amounts of substances in food products. In the context of a mock shopping task, participants were asked to complete a survey that assessed the implied meaning of each of 55 terms, 28 connoting varying degrees of decrease 27 connoting increase. For each set of modifier terms, participants estimated the amount that each term implied and likelihood that they would purchase a food product with the term paired with substances that they were advised to consumer or avoid. The results showed that the terms used in this study connoted a broad range of quantities. Several alternative terms not currently used or under consideration by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration may be effective in helping consumers make finer distinctions among products and, presumably, wiser purchase decisions. The results also suggest that caution be exercised when modifier terms since some terms are less consistent in their connoted meaning than others. Thus, instead of arbitrarily selecting modifier terms and then initiating expensive, large-scale nutrition training programs to train the public, it is recommended that a limited number of modifier terms based on their extant meaning to a broad segment of the population should be used. Future research on developing an optimal set of modifier terms is discussed.

Proceeding of the Human Factors Society 36th annual meeting 1992

1992

False

Undergraduate

100

Sparkling wires and Warning

Koenig, Frederick

Appropriate criteria for warning concerning the dangers associated with opening bottles of sparkling wines are described. A survey of 63 brands of sparkling wine was performed to determine current industry practice with respect to such warnings. Over half of the brands had no warnings; the remainder were described in terms of evaluative for effectiveness of their warnings. The design elements for an effective sparkling wine warning are discussed. Hazard prevention January/March 1989

Hazard prevention January/March 1989

1989

False

True

False

True

False

True

False

True

False

100

101

Altering comprehension: The effect of biasing titles on text comprehension

Kozminsky, Ely

Titles can alter the comprehension of a text by affecting the selection of information from a text and the organization of this information in memory. Text comprehension is assumed to involve an organizational process that results in the formation of a text base, an ordered list of semantic units-propositions. The text base can be used as a retrieval scheme to reconstruct the text. Procedures for assigning propositions as more relevant to some themes as compared to other themes are developed and applied to texts. Texts with biasing titles were used in an experiment to demonstrate that immediate free recall is biased toward the theme emphasized in the title. The comprehension process which is guided by the text’s thematical information is described.

Memory & Cognition 1977, Vol.5 4), 482-490

1977

False

101

102

The Impact of Specific Toy Warning Labels

Langlois, Jean A.

Wallen, Beth A. B.

Teret, Stephen P.

Linda A. Bailey

J. Henry Hershey

Mark O. Peeler.

According to the 1980 Consumer Product Safety Commission’s small parts standard, toys with parts that pose a chocking hazard cannot be marketed for children under the age of 3 years. To comply with the standard, toy manufacturers place age label on packaging to indicate the age which toys with small parts are recommended. We conducted a survey of 199 toy buyers to determine the degree to which they understood such labels as warnings and whether more explicit labels would affect toy buyers’ willingness to purchase toys with small parts for children between 2 and 3 years of age. Forty-four percent of respondents said would buy a child between 2 and 3 years of age a toy with the label “Recommended for 3 and up”; only 5% said they would buy for a young child a toy with the label “Not recommended for below 3-small parts.” These findings indicate that a change in the small parts standards to require more specific labeling might substantially potentially hazardous toy purchases.

JAMA, June5, 1991-Vol265, No. 21

1991

False

102

103

Experimental Evaluation of Exit Directional Indicators

Lerner, Neil D.

The direction to a safe exit is a critical message to convey in built environments. As pictorial signs gave been increasingly used, many exit symbols have been used or proposed, but none has shown to be both well understood and optimally visible under potential emergency conditions. This report focuses on a narrower issue which parallels the exit symbol problem in general: that is, the selection of a directional indicator, or “arrow”, for use with exit signage. In one experiment, a set of arrows was tested for visibility under simulated emergency viewing conditions. In another experiment, arrows were evaluated for suitability on the basic of connotative meaning, uniqueness, and appropriateness of appearance. One arrow was the preferred candidate among the set tested, and some general features were identified for use in selecting exit directional signage.

Proceeding of the Human Factors Society 25th annual meeting 1981

1981

False

True

False

True

False

Female

undergraduate

103

104

Patient Attitudes About Two Forms of Printed Oral Contraceptive Information

Mazis, Michael

Morris, Louis A.

Gordon, Evelyn

The desired form and style of written drug information for patients were assessed in a national survey of oral contraceptive (OC) users. These women were queried about two forms of OC Information: a short included with dispensed drugs and a longer brochure by the physician upon patient request. Longer and more detailed information, especially concerning drug danger and directions for use, was strongly preferred. Younger and more educated women were likely to report receiving the OC brochure and to desire more comprehensive information. Most respondent found information in both the insert and the brochure clears and useful, and felt it was important to include written information with other prescription drugs. The longer brochure was preferred over the shorter insert as a model of drug information to be included with additional drugs.

Medical Care, December 1978, Vol. XVI, No. 12

1978

True

False

True

False

female

104

105

Measured Impact of A Mandated Warning on User Behavior

McCarthy, G.E.

Robinson, J.N.

McCarthy, R.L.

Two groups of expectant first-time mothers were asked to examine an automobile infant restraint and its instruction label, then to install the restraint in an automobile. The label for one group was presented in a warning format, as now required by federal regulation, while the label for the other group was not. Error rates were higher for the warning-label group, although the difference was not statistically significant. Most subjects rated the labels as “Good” or “Very Good”, whether or not they installed the restraints correctly. Results illustrate that, in some situations, clear and direct instructions can be at least effective as a warning in eliciting the desired behavior, and that subject ratings of labels are not necessarily valid predictors of impact on behavior.

Proceeding of the Human Factors Society 31st annual meeting 1987

1987

True

False

105

106

An audible train warning for track maintenance personnel

McClelland, I.L.

Simpson, C.T.

Starbuck, A.

British Rail track maintenance staff currently use a portable warning device to provide audible warning of approaching trains. The audible signal comprises a train warning signal, which is continuous and the same signal broken into a series of discrete ‘bleeps’ to signify that it is safe to work. If the audible signal ceases entirely when bleeping then men could continue to work with out protection. The study reported in this paper was in two parts. The first part, a laboratory study, compared response times to the sudden disappearance of the bleeping signal for four different length of interval between bleeps. The second part, a field study, sought to establish how operational conditions influenced response times for the interval with the shortest time in the laboratory. The main recommendation from the study was that the interval should be shortened from the 7 s specified at the time the study was undertaken, to 2 s, in order to facilitate quicker responses to the absences of the bleeping signal.

Applied Ergonomics 1983, 14.1, 2-10

1983

False

True

False

True

False

107

108

Consumer reactions to differing amounts of written drug information

Morris, Louis A.

David E. Kanouse

Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy Vol. 14 July/Aug 80

1980

False

True

False

108

109

Buyer Response to Variations in Product Information Load

Muller, Thomas E.

This field experiment examined whether load variations in product information displayed at the point of sale affected information use. Nutritional data on several branded were presented in a brand-by-cue format on signs deployed inside two supermarkets. Information load was varied by employing different numbers of nutritional cues for products with different numbers of brands. Changes in brand choices as a function of information load were determined from the sales of over 6000 packages of these products, during 2 weeks. Although the presence of the point-of-sale signs tended to alter brand choices in the hypothesized direction, consumer motivation to use this information was apparently unrelated to variations in information load. Additional research is needed to substantiate the findings over a longer period.

Journal of Applied Psychology 1984, Vol. 69, No. 2, 307-321

1984

False

109

110

The Effect of Three Methods of Instruction on Task Performance

Pacilio, John , Jr.

This study involved a total of 131 subjects systematically selected and assigned to one of three experimental groups who assembled multi-piece truck wheels after having either “written,” “oral,” or “written and oral” instructions. Effectiveness was measured by the speed and accuracy with the subjects performed the task.

False

110

111

Effect of Product Structure on Manual Assembly Performance

Prabhu, Girish V.

Helander, Martin G.

Shalin, Valerie L.

Using Maynard’s description, an assembly task may be divided into various task elements like reach, select, grasp, move, position, and assemble (Ghosh and Helander, 1985). Activities such as “reach” and “move” are governed by biomechanics of body motion including human factors principles such as Fitts' law. This research investigated the effect of the structure of the assembly and the type of assembly instructions on performance. Two different products structures were used a vertical assembly, built bottom-up, and a hierarchical assembly, consisting of several subassemblies. Two different instruction strategies were used: 1. Top-down sequential instructions 2. No Instructions. The research showed that vertical products were easier for manual assembly, when provided with instructions. For all three department measures, there was no interaction effect between the two factors, namely product structure and instructions. Average time for completion was significant for both factors i.e. product structures (F(1,20)=4..417,p<0.0485) and instructions (F(1,20)=5.886,p<0.0248). However, time for learning was significant only for product structure factor (F(1,20)=5.293,p<0.033). Also, trials to learn was significant only for product structure factor (F(1,20)=4.449,p<0.047).

Proceeding of the Human Factors Society 36th annual meeting 1992

1992

False

111

112

Effects of spacing and embellishment on memory for the main point of a text

Reder, Lynne M.

Anderson, John R.

An advantage has been found for acquiring textbook knowledge by studying textbook summaries rather than reading the original prose (Reder & Anderson, 1980). Three students are presented that help to establish the cause of the summary advantage. One possible cause is that reading summaries allows the subject to reread the main points at spaced intervals, and spaced practice is superior to massed practice. A second possible cause is that the presence of details distracts the subject’s attention away from the critical ideas that should be attended to. In Reder and Anderson (1980), these two factors were confounded, but they are unconfounded in the present studies. The results indicate that both possible causes, spaced practice and the absence of details, have significant, independent, and positive effects on retention of the central ideas of a passage.

Memory & Cognition 1982, Vol. 10(2), 97-102

1982

False

112

113

Safety Training by Accident Simulation

Rubinsky, Stanley

Smith, Nelson

A bench grinder was modified to allow the simulation of an accident when an unsafe operation was performed. Accident simulation was used as a training technique and compared with training by the use of written instructions and demonstrations. Subjects trained by accident simulation methods performed significantly fewer unsafe acts and retained their superior habit pattern for at least six months. Further, it was found that the training effect was transferable to a similar but unmodified tool. The use of accident simulation holds promise as a powerful and effective training technique.

Journal of Applied Psychology 1973

1973

False

True

False

113

114

Developing Guidelines for Summarizing Information

Samet, Michael G.

Geiselman, Ralph E.

This study was conducted to test the validity and generalizability of previously developed guidelines for summarizing military message content. The task required staff officers to summarize a set of tactical messages; these summaries were then evaluated by knowledgeable raters. An analysis of the contents of the summaries reflected positively on the guidelines, and the raters judged the individual summaries with the aid of the guidelines to be significantly “better” summaries than those prepared without guidelines. In addition, the 10 summaries that received the highest overall evaluations were used to derive a general suggested outline, or “schema,” for describing the massage content. This schema differed from another schema, derived from summaries of a different sat of messages, only in terms of the inferences drawn from the intelligence data.

Human Factors December, 1981

1981

False

114

115

“Information Load” and Consumers

Scammon, Debra L.

Data from an experimental study situation suggest that increasing amounts of information cause consumers to divide their processing time among the pieces of information presented causing an apparent information overload. Simplified information enables more accurate identification of the objectively best brand but leaves subjects feeling dissatisfied and desiring more information.

The Journal of Consumer Research 1977

1977

False

True

False

115

116

Prevention of Accidental Poisoning Through Package and Label Design

Schneider, Kenneth C.

This article reports findings of a study which investigated the possibility of controlling accidental childhood poisoning by designing package and labels to reduce children’s attraction toward these products. The major conclusion of the article is that such an approach to poison control is feasible.

The Journal of Consumer Research 1977

1977

False

True

False

True

False

nursery school

116

117

The Impact of Task Characteristics on Display Format Effects

Schwartz, David R.

A study was conducted to determine how well the display format effects described by Tullis (1983, 1984) and the resulting prediction equations could be generalized to other display situations. Task complexity and visual monitoring load were identified as task variables which cold potentially moderate the format effects and, thus, were varied factorially. The current study also sought to extend Tullis’ findings to tasks where the use of several pieces of information from predictable display locations is required. In general, the data indicate the need to study Tullis’ format dimensions more fully before using his regression equations to evaluate display designs for use outside the task situation in which the equations were developed. Also, subjects were unable to evaluate their performance accurately under alternative display designs. Their evaluations seemed to be determined mostly by the perceived ease with which information was extracted from the display. This outcome should serve as a warning to system designers. That is, empirical human performance research should be conducted when performance is the paramount design criterion and a validated prediction system, such as the one developed by Tullis for search, is not available.

Proceeding of the Human Factors Society 32nd annual meeting 1988

1988

False

19-32

117

118

An Investigation of Pictorial and Symbol Aircraft Displays for Landing

Simonell, Nicholas Michael i

Each of four different approach to landing displays was flown by a different group of four male instrument pilots. A pictorial approach “gate” symbology with perspective runaway was compared to an electronic ILS-type display. Best performance overall was achieved with the combination of both these displays. No reliable lateral performance difference was found among displays but the variability tended to be less for displays with the perspective runway, especially close to the threshold. The vertical performance, however, was best on those displays that contained the vertical deviation scale and pointer irrespective of the presence of the runway. It was concluded that the pictorial information is of benefit in stabilizing lateral control, but the approach gates as used in the study did not, by themselves provide adequate guidance cues for precise vertical control.

Proceeding of the Human Factors Society 22nd annual meeting 1978

1978

False

True

False

118

119

Response Time Effects of Alerting Tone and Semantic Context for Synthesized Voice Cockpit Warnings

Simpson, Carol A.

Williams, Douglas H.

Some handbooks and human factors design guides have recommended that a voice warning should be preceded by a tone to attract to the warning. As far as can be determined from a search of the literature, no experimental evidence supporting this exists. A fixed-base simulator flown by airline pilots was used to test the hypothesis that the total “system-time” to respond to a synthesized voice cockpit warning would be longer when the message was preceded by a tone because the voice itself was expected to perform both the alerting and the information transfer functions. The simulation included realistic ATC radio voice communications, synthesized engine noise, cockpit conversation, and realistic flight routes. The effect of a tone before a voice warning was to lengthen response time; that is, responses were slower with an alerting tone. Lengthening the voice warning with another word, however, did not increase response time.

Human Factors, 1980, 22(3), 319-330

1980

False

True

False

True

False

119

120

Understanding Written Instructions: The Role of an Explanatory Schema

Smith, Edward E.

Goodman, Lorraine

This research deals with how people understand and use written instructions, like those for assembling an electrical or mechanical object. The major issue concerns the organization of steps. Typically, instructions consist entirely of a linear sequence of steps to be executed. Theoretical considerations, however, suggest that performance would be better if instructions also included an explanatory schema that offered a rationale for each executables step. To test this, three different sets of instructions for assembling an electrical circuit were composed. One contained the typical linear organization (linear instruction), another contained the steps plus an explanatory schema that emphasized the structure of the circuit (structural instructions), and a third contained the steps plus an explanatory schema that emphasized the function of the circuit (functional instructions). In Experiment 1, subjects and executed each step, and then verbally recalled the instructional steps. Steps were read faster and recalled more accurately with structural and functional instructions than with linear ones. Experiment 2 replicated the reading-speed advantage for structural and functional instructions. In Experiment 3, after reading and executing each step, subjects had to assemble another electrical circuit. Performance on this second circuit was better for subjects who had worked with structural or functional instructions than with linear ones.

Cognition and Instruction, 1984

1984

False

True

False

120

121

Instructions, mechanical ability and performance

Sremec, B.

The role of instructions aimed at non-specialist users was studied. Two groups of 15 students were given the task of mounting a window shade. The first group carried out of task using the manufacturers’ original instructions. The second group used an ‘improved’ version of the instructions. It was found that the ‘improved’ instructions significantly contributed to the usability of the product, and that the original instructions failed to fulfill their basic aim: to enable the majority of consumers to successfully use the product.

Applied Ergonomics June 1972

1972

False

121

122

The Influence of position, Highlighting, and Imbedding on Warning Effectiveness

Strawbridge, Jill Annette

An experiment utilizing 195 subjects investigated the behavioral influence of varying warning position, highlighting and embeddedness on warning detection, recall and compliance were given an unfamiliar consumer product to actually use, and direct behavioral observation and follow-up questions were utilized to measure the percentage of subjects who noticed, read and complied with the warning, plus the amount of information subjects could recall about the specific cause, nature and prevention of the danger. There was a steady decline in the number of subjects who first noticed, then read, and finally followed the warning across all measures. Imbedding information critical to warning compliance within the warning section was the only variable found to influence warning compliance. Imbedding the critical warning information significantly reducing warning compliance as compared to the beginning the warning section with the critical information (i.e., the unembedded condition). Warnings were shown to be effective (47% when unembedded). Clearly, however, consumer warning could be improved further, by utilizing fail safe designs

Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings

True

False

True

False

122

123

Effects of Warning Explicitness on Consumer Product Purchase Intentions

Vaubel, Kent P.

Two studies examined the relationship between the explicitness of hazard consequences by a warning label and purchase intentions. Subjects indicated buying preferences for consumer products displaying explicit and non-explicit warning labels. A total of 6 common consumer products was used in Experiment 1. Subjects were shown a questionnaire containing information about products varying in price, quality and warning label explicitness. Sixty-six subjects rates 2 products and ranked 2 products based on which they would be most likely to purchase. Result of the rating and ranking task suggest that products containing non-explicit warnings were significantly more likely to be purchased. In Experiment 2, both explicit and non-explicit warning labels were simultaneously presented for each of nine products and subjects rated with which warning they would prefer to buy the product. Results of experiment 2 indicate one product was rated significantly more likely to be purchased with an explicit warning label; whereas, two products were rated more likely to be bought with non-explicit warnings. There were no significant differences for the remaining six products. Overall, non-explicit warnings were preferred no explicit warnings. However, this trend was reversed for one product, and for many products the detail with which a warning describes potential consequences had little effect on anticipated purchase decisions.

Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting-1990

1990

False

123

124

Is the Airport Symbol Sufficient to Convey Route Information?

Whitaker, Leslie A.

The silhouette of a jet aircraft that is used as an airport symbol on highway route markers was evaluated to determine the strength of its directional information when used an arrow route maker and when used alone. Signs with the plane silhouette plus the route arrow were combined in the Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices; that is, no agreement between plane orientation and route direction was required. This produced signs with concordance, discordance, and orthogonal relationships between the plane orientation and the route. In addition, signs with the plane silhouette only (without a route arrow) were tested. Without prior instruction, the majority of the observers did not interpret the airport symbol as providing directional information without a route arrow. However, after instructions, the mean response time for signs of plane silhouettes alone (752 ms) was comparable to response times (765 ms) for signs with concordance between plane-silhouette orientation and route-arrow direction. Response times to signs with orthogonal and discordant between plane and arrow direction were significantly slower (834ms and 865 ms, respectively).

Human Factors 1985, April

1985

False

True

False

True

False

124

125

Behavioral Effectiveness of Warnings

Wogalter, Michael S.

Fontenelle, Gail A.

Laughery, Kenneth R.

A paradigm was developed to examine the effectiveness of warnings in a laboratory task. A task was presented to subjects as one examining how people perform a basic chemistry demonstration. Experiment 1 examined the effects of two locations of the warning (before and after instructions) and two different signal word presentations (WARNING and Note). An additional condition with no warning or signal word served as a control. No effects were found on time or accuracy. However, compliance (use of mask and gloves) was affected by the inclusion of the warning as well as by its location. Greatest compliance occurred when the warning was placed prior to the instructions. Experiment 2 replicated the effect of location. The addition of a printed statement placed before the instructions (with warning at the end) to read through the instructions before beginning produced intermediate that was not significantly different from the warning beginning and end conditions. Observation revealed that when the warning message was at the end of the instructions subjects complied only when they saw the warning message before starting the task. These results indicate that if warnings are placed in front of instructions the consumer is more likely to read and comply.

Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 39th Annual Meeting-1985

1985

False

True

False

True

False

125

126

Effectiveness of Warnings

Wogalter, Michael S.

Godfrey, Sandra S.

Fontenelle, Gail A.

Desaulniers, David R.

Pamela R. Rothstein

Laughery, Kenneth R.

The purpose of the present work was to identify some of the factor that influence effectiveness of warnings. Two laboratory experiments designed to examine behavioral effectiveness indicated that a warning placed before procedural instructions is more likely to lead to compliance than a warning that follows instructions. Two rating experiments indicated that for greatest perceived effectiveness, environmental warnings generally require a signal word plus hazard, consequence, and instruction statements. A third rating experiment suggested that informative, nonredundant statements add to a warning’s perceived effectiveness. Several field demonstration studies showed that cost of compliance and salience influence behavioral effectiveness. Implications and applications to warning design are discussed.

Human Factors1987

1987

False

True

False

True

False

126

127

Written Information: Some Alternative to Prose for Expressing the Outcomes of Complex Contingencies

Wright, Patricia

Reid, Fraser

Problems were solved using information written either as: (a) bureaucratic style prose, (b) flow chart or algorithm, (c) a list short sentences, or (d) a two-dimensional table. Prose was always slower to use and more error-prone than other versions, but for nonprose formats there were interactions with problem difficulty. Easier problems resulted in no differential error-rates, although the table was used most rapidly problems, the algorithm gave fewest errors. Differences in relation strategies appeared when subjects worked from memory. Here performance with prose and short sentences continued to improve over trails, whereas performance with the algorithm and table deteriorated. It is concluded that the optimal format for written information depends on conditions of use.

Journal of Applied Psychology 1973, Vol. 57, No. 2

1973

False

127

128

Effects of Two Type Density Characteristics on the Legibility of Print

Young, Stephen L.

Laughery, Kenneth R.

Bell, Marilyn

A great deal of research exists regarding the likelihood that warning information will be noticed, but much less research has examined the conditions under which warnings are likely to be read. One variable that may influence the ability and willingness of people to read text is legibility. Poor legibility may result in the information begin more difficult to read and thus be a deterrent to reading it. An important determinant of legibility is print density. The present study examined the effect of two print density manipulations, type width and inter-character spacing, on the ease with warnings could be read. Subjects selected the more “readable” of two choices in a paired comparison task involving all possible combinations of type width (35% of normal, 60% of normal and 100%) and inter-character spacing (10% of normal, 50% and 90%). Results demonstrated that subjects preferred the 100% type width followed by the 60% and then the 35% widths. There was no main effect of inter-character spacing, although spacing did interact with type width. In a subsequent-speed task, it was shown that. The smallest print condition (with the 35% width and 10% inter-character spacing) produced significantly longer reading times than either the intermediate or larger print conditions. Overall, these results suggest that type width is a strong determinant of print legibility, and that it can be manipulated to increase the ease with which warning information is accessed.

Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting-1992

1992

False

True

False

True

False

128

129

A Script Theoretic Approach to Information Processing an Energy Conservation Application

Bozinoff, Lorne

The paradox of how unconscious or routine response behavior can occur within an information processing paradigm is examined and resolved in term of script theory. The empirical evidence concerning scripts is reviewed and an application in the area of energy conservation is suggested. An empirical study based on script theory yielded three finding. First, support for the existence of scripts is found. Second, scripts can be reliably measured. And third, scripts can provide insights into routine response behavior not available through traditional consumer research methods.

False

129

130

Assessing User Compliance with Procedures for Soft Contact Lens Care

Callan, James R.

Cardinal, Blair F.

Tolbert Margaret T.

Many eye health problems associated with soft contact lens wear can be traced to user error in lens care. This paper describes a human factors research project undertaken by the Food and Drug Administration to evaluate and improve labeling for soft contact lens care. An experiment methodology was developed that permitted contact lens cleaning performance to be evaluated in terms of performance, instructional, and motivational factors. In the first study, experienced soft contact lens wearers were observed while they cleaned and disinfected their lens. Errors were observed for all aspects of lens care, including failing to understand correct procedures, failing to follow instructions, improperly maintaining lens care system components, and mismatching components from incompatible care system. Prototype patient instruction booklets that were designed to eliminate these errors were then prepared. In a second study, the prototype booklets were to determine how well they conveyed lens care information to new contact lens wearers. Performance measures indicated that the prototype booklets exerted measurable improvements on lens care compliance.

True

False

True

False

130

131

Effects of an Aversive Vicarious Experience and Modeling on Perceived Risk and Self-Protective Behavior

Chy-Dejoras, Evangeline A.

A 2x3 between-subjects design was used to determine the effects of modeling and aversiveness of a vicarious experience on perceived risk and self-protective behavior. Modeling and aversiveness of experience were manipulated using an instruction videotape. Unprotected model and protected model conditions were compared. Benign, slightly aversive, and highly aversive conditions were compared. The dependent variables were self-protective behavior and perceptions regarding the hazardousness of the product, severity of injury, likelihood of injury, likelihood of an accident, and familiarity with the product. More subjects in the protected model group exhibited self-protective behavior compared to the control group. There was no difference in levels of perceived risk between the two groups. Aversiveness had an effect on self-protective behavior. The slightly aversive group showed an incidence of self-protective behavior significantly greater than that of the control group and the highly aversive group. Examination of the nature of manipulation used in the slightly aversive condition suggests that an ambiguous portrayal of the consequences of a hazard while implying its potential to inflict harm causes people to behave cautiously. The incidence of self-protective behavior in the highly aversive group did not differ significantly from that of the control group despite a significant difference in perceived levels of hazardousness. This is explained as a manifestation of the so-called “self-protective attribution of responsibility.” Perceived hazardousness was found to be the primary predictor of self-protective behavior. Perceived severity and likelihood of injury were found to be the primary predictors of perceived hazardousness. A strong association was found between self-protective and perceived personal susceptibility to injury.

Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings

True

False

131

132

Assessing Communication Effects on Energy Conservation

Craig, C. Samuel

McCann, John M.

This article presents the result of a field experiment on alternative ways of prompting energy conservation behavior. The source of the communication was found to influence the number of requests for energy conservation information and the actual consumption of electricity. Repetition of the communication had effect on either.

Journal of Consumer Research 1978, September

1978

False

132

133

Will Mother Use Free Household Safety Device?

Dershewitz, Robert A.

This study was intended to determine if mothers of small children would use free safety devices to help safety-proof their homes. The study population consisted of an experimental group of 101 families receiving general health education on home safety proofing and a control group of 104 families. Each of 205 families received two types of safety devices: Kindergards (which are plastic locking devices for cabinets and so forth) and covers for electric outlets. The families were given identical instructions on their use. There was significant increase in the use of the outlet covers in both subgroups, with the experimental group using them more (P<.05) than the control group. There was no significantly increased use of the Kindergards.

Am J Dis Child Vol. 133, Jan 1979

1978

True

False

True

False

133

134

A most critical warning variable: two demonstrations of the powerful effects of cost on warning compliance

Dingus, Thomas A.

Hathaway, Jill A.

Hunn, Bruce P.

The effects of cost on warning compliance have been demonstrated in several previous studies. These studies have shown that cost reduction can dramatically increase compliance with a warning label’s intent. The current paper describes two studies which support these previous findings under situations of household consumer product and recreational protective equipment use. In addition, these studies demonstrate that cost reduction can positively influence behavior under circumstances known to be detrimental to warning effectiveness. Such circumstances include low risk perception, familiar products, and inadequate warning labels/signs. These studies also show that increasing the cost associated with warning compliance, even a seemingly minor amount, can have devastating effects on compliance rates. These results indicate that the greatest effort possible should be taken to reduce compliance cost in hazardous situations when warnings are relied upon for hazard control

Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings

True

False

134

135

Warning variables affecting personal protective equipment use

Dingus, Thomas A.

Wreggit, Steven S.

Hathaway, Jill A.

This paper describes two studies conducted to test selected warning variables for their influence on the use of personal protective equipment. Both of the studies were field demonstrations: one conducted in a recreational setting and the other as part of a consumer product scenario. Each of the studies involved manipulations that could be practically implemented in many warning situations. Both studies showed that cost strongly influenced the use of personal protective equipment. “Cost” was shown to include parameters of time and difficulty with obtaining the equipment. The results indicate that a small increase in cost can devastate use rates. Additional factors that were to positively influence equipment use under at least some circumstances include: (1) the addition of “specific consequence” information, including accident frequency and severity data, to standard warning signs/labels; and (2) product labels requiring physical manipulation by the consumer for product use.

Safety Science, 16(1993)

1993

False

True

False

True

False

135

136

Two reasons for providing protective equipment as part of hazardous consumer product packing

Dingus, Thomas A.

Hunn, Bruce P.

Wreggit, Steven S.

In a few instances, appropriate personal protective devices are includes in the packaging of hazardous consumer products (e.g. gloves in hair coloring kits). The inclusion of such devices serves to decrease the cost of complying to warnings specifying their use. It has been shown in several studies that decreasing cost can substantially increase compliance with warnings. A second, previously undocumented advantage of providing protective devices is that mere presence can increase the perception of danger associated with using the product. In two field studies utilizing consumer cleaning products it was found that the inclusion of protective devices significantly increased the perceived danger of using the products. The inclusion of protective equipment also (for reasons of reduced cost and increased perceived danger) resulted in highly significant and substantial increases in warning compliance. These results indicate that providing personal protective devices as part of product packaging can be a powerful method for substantially increasing warning compliance in at least some circumstances.

Human Factors Perspectives on Warning

True

False

136

137

Effect of Location and Procedural Explicitness on User Processing of and Compliance with Product Warnings

Frantz, J. Paul

Eighty subjects used a water-repellent sealer with one of four labels in an experiment to determine the effect of precaution location relative to usage instructions and the effect of procedural explicitness of precautions on the attention to and compliance with on-product warning and instructions. Contrary to current/recommended practice, the inclusion of precautions in the directions for use substantially increased label effectiveness, as did increasing precaution explicitness. Compared with the exemplar current label, procedurally explicit precautions included in the directions substantially increased reading rates from 4% to 78% and compliance rates from 10% to 65%. This experiment also produced a number of finding regarding user processing of product information. This research is not supportive of labeling guidelines and regulations calling for precautions to be separated from usage information.

Effect of Presentation Factors on Warning September 1994

1994

True

False

18-23

males and females

137

138

The Effect of Symbols on Warning Compliance

Jaynes, Linda S.

Boles, David B.

The present study investigated whether different warning designs, specifically those with symbols, affect compliance rates. Five conditions were tested: a verbal warning, a pictographs warning with circle enclosing each graphic, a pictographs warning with a triangle on its vertex enclosing each graphic, a warning with both words and pictographs (triangular enclosures), and a control (no warning). Participants performed a chemistry laboratory task using a set of instructions that contained one of the five conditions. The warning instructed them to wear safety goggles, mask and gloves. All four warning conditions had significantly greater compliance than the no-warning condition. The highest rate of compliance occurred with the verbal plus pictographs condition, although it did not differ significantly from the verbal condition. A significant main effect was found for the “presence of pictographs” variable, suggesting that the addition of pictographs to a verbal warning will increase compliance rates. The unexpected finding that the pictographs warning with triangular enclosures had significantly lower compliance means than the verbal warning may be due to the different types of message modes or design criteria used. The enclosure shape made no difference in compliance rates, despite research that indicates that unstable shape are preferred as warning enclosures. The results suggest the importance of conducting behavioral studies rather than relying on preference data.

Human Factors Perspectives on Warning

True

False

True

False

True

138

139

A Warning Label for Scaffold Users

Johnson, Daniel

The purpose of this research project was to develop a warning label which would: a) alert scaffold workers to the potential of danger when working on scaffolds, and b) to increase the likelihood they seek out and read the safety guidelines supplied with the scaffolds. A warning was developed and tested on 150 potential users. It significantly increased subjects’ behavioral intentions to seek safety information before working on a scaffold they not been on before. This was true for inexperienced scaffold workers. This effect was not found for scaffolds the subjects supposedly had been on before. Highly experienced workers were less likely to comply with the warning than less experienced workers. It was concluded that the warning would increase the use of safety guideline by those working that was new to them. But a new warning on scaffold a worker had already been on would have no effect on the reading of safety guidelines.

Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting-1992

1992

False

True

False

True

False

True

males and females

139

140

A Behavioral Approach to Occupational Safety: Pinpointing and Reinforcing Safe Performance in a Food Manufacturing Plant

Komaki, Judi

Barwick, Kenneth D.

Scott, Lawrence R.

The behavior analysis approach was used to improve worker safety in two departments in a food manufacturing plant. Desired safety practices were identified, permitting construction of observational codes suitable for observing workers’ on-the-job performance over a 25-week period of time. The intervention consisted of an explanation and visual presentation of the desired behaviors, as well as frequent, low-cost reinforcement in the form of feedback. A within-subject (multiple baseline) design was used. Employees in the two departments substantially improved their safety performance from 70% and 78% to 96% and 90%, respectively, after the staggered introduction of the program. During the reversal phase, performance returned to baseline (71% and 72%). It was concluded that the intervention, particularly the frequent feedback, was effective in improving safety performance. Not only did employees react favorably to the program, but the company was later able to maintain the program with a continuing decline in the injury frequency rate. The results suggest that behaviorally defining and positively safe practices is a viable approach to occupational accident reduction.

False

140

141

Effect of Training and Feedback: Component Analysis of a Behavioral Safety Program

Komaki, Judi

Heinzmann, Arlene T.

Lawson, Loralie

Desired safety practices were behaviorally defined for four sections of a city’s vehicle maintenance division (N=55). A total of 165 observations were conducted over 45 weeks. A multiple-baseline design with a reversal component was used in which five conditions were introduced: (a) baseline, (b) Training Only 1 (desired practices were discussed, Illustrated, and posted), (c) Training and Feedback 1 (supervisors observed daily and provided feedback about the section safety level on graphs), (d) Training Only 2, and (e) Training and Feedback 2. Whereas employees showed only slight improvements during the Training Only 1 Phase, Their performance increased substantially during the Training and Feedback 1 phase. At this point, it was concluded that the provision of training alone is not a sufficient means of improving and maintaining performance. The conclusion was confirmed during the Training Only 2 phase when performance declined. Performance improved once again during the Training and Feedback 2 phase, but only when feedback was provided at least three times a week. This qualification raises significant questions with regard to sustaining performance gains and supervisory support.

Journal of Applied Psychology 1980, Vol. 65, No. 3

1980

False

141

142

Ergonomics of visual emergency signals

Kroemer, K.H.E.

Marras, W.S.

Visual distress signaling devices should be designed for safe and efficient use by untrained persons under adverse operating conditions. Thus, Ergonomics/Human Factors information should be used intensively to optimize visual emergency signals (VES). Research was performed to assess the compliance with Human Engineering principles in existing VES. A field survey was conducted, in which the VES were categorized, critical Ergonomics aspects were established and compiled to design recommendations. Laboratory tests were performed that indicated the effects of selected Human Engineering design features on identification, unpacking, and operation of VES. Finally, the research results were validates in realistically simulated emergencies. The research findings demonstrate that adherence to recommendations is often missing in present VES, but would greatly reduce the time needed (here: up to 80%) for the successful use of the signals.

False

142

143

Risk-Taking, Warning Labels, Training, and Regulation: Are they Associated with the Use of Helmets by All-Terrain Vehicle Riders?

Lehto, Mark R.

Foley, James P.

Training programs and warning labels have been advocated as a means of convincing consumers to follow safety precautions when using all-terrain vehicles (ATVs), and are emphasized in the recent consent decree signed between the Consumer Product Safety Commission and ATV manufacturers. An alternative approach is to mandate safe behavior through regulations and law. This field study of ATV operator behavior conducted in six states in 1998 and 1989 provides initial insight into the effectiveness of these approaches. Logit analysis revealed that helmet use was significantly higher when required by law or when riders had 3 or more years of riding experience. Helmet use was significantly lower when riders rode frequently, when helmets were perceived as uncomfortable or not used on motorcycles, and when subjects had been moderately or seriously injured in ATV accidents. The presence of warning labels, reading of a manual, and participation in a training course were not significantly related to helmet use.

Journal of Safety Research Vol.22, pp.191-200, 1991

1991

False

True

False

143

144

A Behavioral Study of Warning Labels for Consumer Products: Perceived Danger and use of Pictographs

Otsubo, Shirley M.

This study focused on the effectiveness of warning labels placed on consumer products differing in perceived “danger” or “hazard.” A 2x4 between-subject design (N=131) was performed, incorporating two levels of product danger (circular saw=high level of danger; jigsaw=low level of danger) and four levels of warning label (words only, pictograph only, words+pictograph, and no warning). Effectiveness was investigated by studying the behavior of products users to determine who noticed, read, complied and recalled the warning message. Overall results indicated that subjects noticed, read and complied with warnings placed on the product perceived to be more dangerous than on the product perceived to be less dangerous. Additional data suggest that people more familiar with use of the product will tend to read, comply and recall the warnings less than those less familiar. Also people more confident with the use of the product will tend to read and comply less than those less confident. Type of warning label showed no effect. However, in all conditions with a warning label, an average of 25.5% complied with the warning (range 12.5-50%), and without a waning label no one took precautionary action consistent with the warning message. The findings support the contention that the use of conspicuously designed and placed warning labels on products will influence people to behave cautiously.

Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings

True

False

True

False

True

False

undergraduate students

144

145

A Prediction Model For Consumer Behavior Regarding Product Safety

Purswell, Jerry L.

Schlegel, Robert E.

Kejriwal, Sashi K.

The objective of this study was the development of a model to predict whether a consumer would use a product safely as a function of sixteen different individual variables. Subjects were presented with four consumer products to use in an experimental analysis was used to develop a prediction model to classify subjects into categories of safe or unsafe behavior. Prediction accuracy ranged from 68-86 percent for different types of behavior. The research illustrated which variables are important in determining whether a product will be used safely and has implications for product designs, warnings, instructions for use and training.

Human Factors Perspective on Warnings

False

True

False

145

146

Warning Compliance: Effects of a Video Warning Sign and Modeling on Behavior

Racicot, Bernadette M.

Wogalter, Michael S.

The effectiveness of warnings and social influence (modeling) for improving safety behavior was examined in a laboratory setting. Although training programs aimed at improving safety behavior in the workplace frequently use videotapes with models portraying safe and unsafe behaviors, the effectiveness of training interventions of this type are rarely evaluated nor have results been published in the research literature. Training to increase safety behaviors can translate into large savings to an organization in terms of reductions in equipment damage, cost of liability litigation, and decreases in injury to both consumers and employees. The present research examined the effects of a posted (video) warning, video role-modeling, and a voice warning on compliance with safety behaviors. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions, warning alone, waning and exposure to a video model performing the appropriate safety behaviors, or warning, video modeling, and a voice warning. The results showed that behavioral modeling presented through a video display significantly enhanced behavioral compliance compared to a video sign warning alone. The addition of a voice warning did not further increase compliance due to ceiling effects produced by the powerful influence of the modeling. Implications of this research for safety training programs and forensic human factors as well as suggestions for future research are discussed.

Human Factors Perspectives on Warning

False

True

False

146

147

Effect of Pediatricians’ Counseling on Infant Restraint Use

Reisinger, Keith S.

Williams, Allan F.

Wells, JoAnn K.

C. Eric John

Thom R. Roberts

Helen J. Podgainy

The effect of pediatricians’ counseling to parents on infant restraint use was studied. The study population consisted of 269 women who gave birth to infants consecutively in Pittsburgh hospitals and requested that their infants be cared for by three pediatricians in a group practice. An experimental group received education regarding crash protection of infants traveling in cars during their postpartum stay and at their infants’ 1 and 2 months of age well-child visits. Educational inputs included: discussions by the pediatricians on how to protect infants in cars, a pamphlet on car safety, a formal prescription for a restraint, and an actual demonstration by pediatricians of correct use of an infant restraint. A comparison group was not provided such education. Evaluation was based on actual observations of how infants were traveling in cars when they arrived at the pediatricians’ office for well-child care at 1,2,3,4, and 15 months of age. Use of restraints anchored by car seat belts in the experimental group was higher than in the comparison group at each observation point by 23% at 1 month, 72% at 2 months, 9% at 4 months, and 12% at 15 months of age. The results indicated that pediatricians can be effective in increasing the protection of infants in cars, at least at the age (2 to 3 months) when the car-occupant death is especially great, but in this study the effect of their education was largely diminished by four months. Pediatricians should routinely educate their patients about crash protection of infants, but further studies are needed to determine techniques that can be used to maximize the magnitude and duration of positive effects. Additional techniques to increase the crash protection of infants, such as improved interior compartment designs and air bags, are also necessary and should be encouraged by pediatricians and other physicians

False

female

147

148

Safety Belt Use in Automobiles with Starter0Interlock and Buzzer-Light Reminder Systems

Robertson, Leon S.

When a moving vehicle decelerates abruptly, as in a crash with another vehicle or with other sufficiently unyielding objects in the environment, unrestrained occupants are thrown about in or out of the vehicles. Unrestrained occupants of crash-involved vehicles are often injured when they strike interior surface of the vehicle or the external environment when they are thrown out. An average of nearly 13,000 people per day were injured in or by motor vehicles sufficiently to require at least 1 day of restricted activity in 1972. By late 1973 a total of 2 million people had died in the U.S. as a results of motor vehicle crashed since the introduction of such vehicles as a mode of travel.

False

True

False

148

140

Informational Regulation of Consumer health Risks: an Empirical Evaluation of Hazard Warnings

Viscusi, W. Kip

Magat, Wesley A.

Huber, Joel

On the basis of data from a survey of almost 400 customers, this article assesses whether consumer behavior is responsive to information about product hazards that is provided in response to regulation. We find that the extent to which consumers take precautions is consistent with the level of risk indicated, the amount of risk information, the specific risk and precaution indicate, and the economic benefits of safety precautions. We also use the patterns of precautionary behavior to analyze the implicit value of the morbidity effects and to assess the consistency of consumer choices. Our findings support the use of product-hazard information as an alternative to more direct regulation of safety risks.

False

149

150

Effects of Cost and Social Influence on Warning Compliance

Wogalter, Michael S.

Allison, Scott T.

The behavioral effects of cost and social influence on warning compliance were examined. Participants in several studies performed a chemistry laboratory task using a set of instructions that contained a warning direction them to wear a safety mask and gloves. Cost was manipulated by locating the mask and gloves in either an accessible location (low cost) or a less accessible location (high cost); social influence was manipulated by the presence of a confederate who either did or did not comply with the warning. The results showed reduced compliance with the warning when the cost was high and that the compliance rate was biased up or down depending on the behavior of the confederate. The result from a field study confirmed the social influence effect. Implications of this research for facilitating warning effectiveness and safety are discussed.

Human Factors, 1989

1989

True

False

college students

150

151

Warning Compliance: Behavioral Effects of Cost and Consensus

Wogalter, Michael S.

McKenna, Nancy A.

Allison, Scott T.

Two laboratory experiments were conducted to examine the behavioral effects of cost and consensus on warning compliance. Subjects performed a chemistry demonstration task using a set of instructions that contained a warning directing them to wear a safety mask and gloves. In experiment 1, cost was manipulated by locating the masks and gloves in either an accessible location (low cost) or less accessible location (high cost). In experiment 2, consensus was manipulated by the additional presence of a confederate subject who either did or did not comply with the warning. The results showed reduced compliance to the warning when the cost was high, and that the compliance rate was biased up or down depending on the behavior of the confederate. Implications of this research for facilitating warning effectiveness and safety are discussed.

Human Factors Perspective on Warnings

True

False

151

152

Evaluating the Behavioral Effectiveness of a Multi-Modal Voice Warning Sign in a Visually Cluttered Environment

Wogalter, Michael S.

Rashid, Raheel

Clarke, Steven W.

Kalsher, Michael J.

This research examined the effects of a multi-modal warning sign on compliance behavior. Participants followed a set of printed instructions to perform a chemistry task that involved measuring and mixing disguised (nonhazardous) chemicals. Whether participants wore protective equipment as directed by the warning was measured. The environment around the sign was either visually cluttered or uncluttered. In some conditions, pictorials, a voice warning, and/or a flashing strobe light were added. The results showed that compliance was significantly greater when the warning was presented in an uncluttered environment compared to a cluttered environment. The results also showed that the presence of a voice warning produced a strong and reliable increase in compliance compared to conditions without voice warning. No statistically reliable effects of pictorials or strobe were found though the results did show a trend of greater compliance when they were present. In addition, compliance was positively related to memory of the warning, perception of hazard, and reported carefulness. The results call attention to the importance of the context in which a warning is placed, and the potential benefits of voice warnings.

True

False

True

False

True

False

graduate students and high school students

152

153

Design Features of Graphic Symbols Varying in Interpretability

Cahill, Mary-Carol

10 of the graphic symbols designed by Henry Dreyfuss Associates for Deere and Company farm and industrial machinery were presented to 30 mechanical engineering majors for interpretation in context and in isolation. Approximately half of the 15 subjects in each condition had specific prior experience with the type pf machinery for which the symbols were intended. Individual symbols were differentially affected by the two factors of context and experience, but relative ease of recognition among the symbols as a set persisted unchanged. Specific design features of the symbols were examined in an attempt to account for their variation in interpretability. While pictorial and “grammatical” aspects were involved, the more successful symbols were distinguished primarily by being representations of commonplace rather than technological objects and actions.

Perceptual and Motor Skills 1976, 42, 647-653

1976

False

True

False

True

False

male

mechanical engineering

153

154

Contextual Prerequisites for Understanding: Some investigations of Comprehension and Recall

Bransford, John D.

Johnson, Marcia K.

The present paper presents a series of studies showing that relevant contextual knowledge is a prerequisite for comprehending prose passages. Four studies are reported, each demonstrating increased comprehension ratings and recall scored when Ss were supplied with appropriate information before they heard test passages. Supplying Ss with the same information subsequent to the passages produced much lower comprehension ratings and recall scored. Various explanations of the results are considered, and the role of topics in activating cognitive contexts is discussed.

False

True

False

154

155

Interpretability of Graphic Symbols as a Function of Context and Experience Factors

Cahill, Mary-Carol

Ten of the graphic symbols designed by Henry Dreyfuss Associates for Deere and Company farm and industrial machinery were tested for ease of interpretation in context and in isolation. Subjects were mechanical engineering students (N=30) who differed in their extent of familiarity with such equipment. As hypothesized, the symbols were more often correctly identified in context and by subjects with relevant prior experience. Symbols maintained the same relative of difficulty under both context and no-context conditions, a difficulty which ranged from 100% correct responses to only a few correct responses. It was concluded that empirical validation of effectiveness is a necessary, although often neglected, step in the symbol development process.

False

True

False

True

False

college engineering students

155

156

The Godfrey-Laux Alcohol Knowledge Attitudes, and Intentions Assessment Battery

Godfrey, Sandra S.

Laux, Lila F.

The Godfrey-Laux Alcohol Knowledge, Attitudes, and Intentions Assessment Battery (GLB) was developed to measure the impact of information about the effects of alcohol consumption on knowledge, attitudes, and intentions related to alcohol use. Items were selected from existing instruments and new items were constructed. They were factor analyzed, and an attitude scale measuring (in)tolerance toward alcohol use and two behavioral intention scales, one measuring intent to use alcohol responsibility and the other intent to set limits on alcohol use, were constructed based on the factors obtained. A correlational analysis included two scores on the knowledge items (number correct and number wrong), the attitude and intention scales, and reported behavior. The highest correlations were between attitudes and intentions. Knowledge scores correlated with intentions and reported single occasion alcohol consumption rate, and substantial correlations were observed among attitudes, intentions, and reported drinking behavior (whether they drank how often, and single occasion consumption rate). These results illustrate that knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and reported behavior regarding alcohol consumption are interrelated. Thus information presented in the form of a warning or some other form about the hazards and risks of alcohol use should affect related attitudes, intentions and , theoretically, behavior. The GLB should be useful both for evaluating the effects of information dissemination and of predicting behavior related to alcohol consumption.

Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting – 1991

1991

False

156

157

Effects of Consumers’ Familiarity With a Product on Attention To and Compliance With Warnings

Goldhaber, Gerald

The current study investigated whether consumers who own an above-ground pool would notice a salient warning sign related to the dangers of diving into an above-ground pool. Subject were given as much time as they wanted to examine an above-ground pool in a dealer’s showroom. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: 1) warning sign present, or 2) warning sign absent. Based on information processing theory, it is argued that subjects more familiar with a product will be uncertain about the presence of a warning. In addition, it is argued that subjects who have a history of diving into above-ground pools are more likely to do so than subjects who have never dived into an above-ground pool despite the presence of a warning. Analysis indicated that less than fifty percent of the subjects in the warning-present condition noticed the warning. In addition, results indicated that subjects who were uncertain about whether or not there was a warning label on the pool owned their pools significantly longer than subjects who either noticed or did not notice the warning. Moreover, subjects who reported that they dive into above-ground pools indicated that they were significantly more likely to dive into the above-ground pool they examined in the dealer’s showroom despite the presence of the warning.

Journal of Products Liability, Vol. 11, pp. 29-37 (1988)

1988

False

157

The Coding of SYMBOL SIGNS

Green, Paul

Lien-tsang, Hsu

Laughery, Kenneth R.

Color, shape and legend coding were examined in the context of four traffic signs in which these cues were redundant. The signs: STOP, NO ENTRY, GIVE WAY and CROSSING were each prepared in the original correct version and in one each with color, shape and legend changed, marking 16 signs in all. These were presented amid a distracting background in the laboratory, for 25 ms each. Subjects were asked to identify weather each sign seen was correct (i.e., changed in some way). Results indicated that, in general, color changes were noticed by most subjects, followed by shape changes. Changes in legend were poorly noticed. It was concluded that where color and shape can be made redundant cues they can greatly contribute to the rapid recognition of a sign. In resent years there has been an increase in the use of symbol signs of communicating with out the use of language. Perhaps this has been a result of an increase in international travel, but it can be seen in such areas as traffic signs, industrial safety signs, and in the general area of public information signs. Research into such signs suggests that in many cases a symbol is recognize more accurately that the same message in words (Brainard, Campbell & Elkins, 1961; Ells & Dewar, 1979; Walker, Nicolay & Stearns, 1965) and can be recognized from a greater distance that the comparable verbal sign (Jacobs, Johnston & Cole, 1975). Traffic signs are one application, in particular where the use of symbol signs is increasing. The UN conference on Road Traffic (1968), for example, including many signs using symbols alone. The only words occurring are words such as STOP, and, of course, place names. In the realm of public information signs, the International Standards Organization (ISO) committee TC145 (Graphic Symbols) and its subcommittee 1 (Graphic Symbols for Public Information) has recently (1980) produced a Draft International Standard on Public Information Symbols (DIS 7001) and is currently (1980) testing symbols for a further 39 referents. The British Standards Institute has produced a standard for Safety Colors and Safety Signs (BS 5378-1976), and the ISO is producing a draft standard on Safety Colors and Safety Signs (ISO/DIS 3864.2). None of the signs being considered in these areas involves words. In the Standards Association of Australia, work has recently been progressing on the standardization of both Safety Signs for the Occupational Environment (Australian Standard (1319-1979) and the Design and Use of Graphic Symbols and Public Information (Australian Standard 2342-1980). In both of these standards, reference is made to the coding of the background on which the symbol occurs. For example, for a prohibitory sign, both standards require the symbol to be on a white ground, surrounded with red annulus and with a red slash through the symbol. If the sign is used for informational purposes, the symbol must in both cases be on a plain blue square. However, for warning signs, the occupational standard requires the symbol to be on a yellow triangle, apex up, with black border, while the public information standard reburies the symbol to be on a yellow diamond, also with a black border. This conflict, it should be added, is inherited from a similar conflict in the work of the ISO. In the light of such conflict over the details of sign coding, the question arises as to precisely what aspects of such details are in fact noticed and effective. To what extent do these details in decoding the sign’s meaning? This question has many facts. For example, where a completely new symbol is seen in a completely new context, the background coding may assist in conveying the appropriate meaning. On the other hand, with established signs in established contexts, some simple detail such as a familiar shape may be all that is needed for identification. The present study examines the role of coding details in the identification of four familiar signs. In order to determine which details are of importance for identification, the question was asked to what extent changes can be made to these details without those changes being detected. In attempting to answer this question, the four familiar traffic signs which were chosen have words as part of the sign. Since the legend was in each case not necessary for the identification of the sign, it may be treated by drivers in much the same manner as details of color and shape coding. It may thus be seen as an additional cue, rather than as a necessary feature. The strategy, in essence, was to prepare each sign in its original form, and in three additional forms, each with either the colors, the shape or the legend changed. Each sign was presented tachistocoscopically for 25 min and subjects were asked to identify signs they thought were correct and unaltered. The argument is that if a dimension can be changed without the subject’s noticing, then that particular dimension cannot be of importance in identifying that particular sign.

HAZARD PREVENTION

1981

True

False

True

False

True

False

True

158

Product familiarity and Learning New Information

Johnson, Eric J.

Russo, J. Edward

What is the relationship between product familiarity and the ability to learn new product information? An experiment shows that product familiarity can lead to increased learning during subsequent purchase decisions. However, this ability strongly interacts with the specific decision task: the monotonic relationship between familiarity and learning holds for judgment but not for choice. The results also show that judgment and choice strategies leave different information in memory. We believe that phased choice strategies account for this difference.

False

True

False

graduate students

159

Effects of Benign Experiences On the Perception of Risk

Karnes, Edward W.

Leonard, S.David

Rachwal, Glen

In accordance with simple reinforcement theory it is assumed that experiences with potentially dangerous events that do not result in harm to an individual will tend to extinguish the individual’s perception of the risk associated with those events. The purpose of the experiment described here is to evaluate the extent to which experiences with those events. The purpose of the experiment described here is to evaluate the extent to which experiences that have not resulted in injury or concern for injury may affect the perception of risk associated with warnings. In line with theory, those persons having had experience with all terrain vehicles (ATVs) showed less perception of risk than those without such experience. Further, the efficacy of warnings against use with passengers varied as a function of prior passenger experience.

Proceeding of the Human Factors Society -30th Annual Meeting- 1986

1986

False

160

Some Epidemiologic Features of Motorcycle Collision Injuries

Kraus, Jess F.

Riggins, Richard S.

Franti, Charles E.

Kraus, J.F. (School of Medicine, U. of California, Davis, CA 95616), R.S. Riggins and C.E. Franti. Some epidemiologic features of motorcycle collision injuries. I. Introduction, methods and factors associated with incidence. Am J Epidemiol 102:74-98, 1975. – Using official police reports and hospital admission and emergency room medical records, 1273 persons with a confirmed medically treated motorcycle injury were identified in Sacramento County, CA, during 1970. Less than 39% of all injured motorcyclists were identified in this study using only official police reports. The annual incident rate was highest for 18-year-old male drivers. In addition to age of driver, risk of injury was associated with drivers of short stature (<173 cm) operating an intermediate or larger size motorcycle. Risk of injury was higher for drivers with training than for those without training or those who operated their motorcycles frequently regardless of type of use. Risk of injury was not related to make of motorcycle but was related to engine size. Two-thirds of the injury-producing collisions involved a motorcycle and a second motor vehicle. Motorcycle collisions occurred most frequently during the afternoon and early evening hours and during the summer months, but peaks in incidence of collisions occurred during weeks which included a holiday.

American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol.102

False

161

To Ask a Question, One must Know Enough to Know What is Not Known

Miyake, Naomi

Norman, Donald A.

In this study, we test the notion that a prerequisite for asking question about new topic matter is some appropriate level of knowledge. Learners should ask the most question when their knowledge is well matched to the level of presentation. TO test this hypothesis, we tested learners with two levels of background knowledge using learning material with two levels of difficulty. The learners were instructed to say aloud all their questions and thoughts while learning. With the easier material, novice learners asked more questions than trained learners, with the harder material, trained learners asked more questions than novice learners . The results suggest that any theory of question asking in learning should consider the interaction between the levels of knowledge of the asker and of the material.

Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 18, 357-364 (1979)

1979

False

162

A Survey of Aspirin Use and Reye’s Syndrome Awareness among Parents

Morris, Louis A.

Klimberg, Ronald

A national telephone survey of 1,155 parents of children 19 years old of age and younger solicited patterns of medication use during episodes of childhood flu and chicken pox. During the previous two years, 6 percent of parents whose children had flu administered aspirin. Approximately 12 percent of the total sample said they would give their children aspirin if their child were get the flu or chicken pox today. About half (53 percent) were aware of the contraindication against aspirin use and 40 percent could spontaneously recall the name Reye’s Syndrome (RS). When measured by a recognition test, 84 percent of the sample said they had heard pf R.S. People who continued to believe that aspirin was an appropriate medication were more likely to have treated older children. The RS contraindication for aspirin should be emphasized for teenagers in future public information programs.

False

True

False

163

On-The-Road Driving Records of Licensed Race Drivers

Williams, Allan F.

O’Neil, Brian

Recently, the concept of a “Master Driver’s License” was introduced by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. As envisioned by NHTSA officials, a Master Driver’s License would be available to those passing a special, more difficult driving test than given to regular driving license applicants. Before talking the test, applicants for a Master Driver’s license would have to receive special training in emergency driving procedures such as skid control and off-road recovery. Recipients of a master Driver’s License would be rewarded for their expertise. As stated by Douglas W. Toms, then Administrator of the National highway Traffic Safety Administration, “ we think people who hold this license may be then eligible for superior privileges in our society. This might range from a reduction on their annual insurance premium, it might permit them reduced rates on tollways, there may be any number of things. They might be eligible for membership in clubs which would permit them to own their car for less money or be able to do things because of their advanced skills which would provide them with a high quality of life”. [Department of transportation, 1972 pp.6-7].

Accid. & Prev. Vol.6, pp 263-270 1974

1974

False

164

Effectiveness of Cigarette Advertisements on Women: An Experimental Study

Loken, Barbara

Howard-Pitney, Beth

We investigated three factors that could influence subjects’ reactions to print advertisements for cigarettes. A total of 115 college women were shown cigarette ads that varied on two dimensions: whether an attractive model was shown and whether a general or specific warning label was shown. One half of the women were pretested on their beliefs about the hazards of smoking prior to seeing the ads, all of the women completed a posttest beliefs measure. Rating of the attractiveness, persuasiveness, and credibility of the ads were collected, and the smoking status of subjects was assessed. Result indicated that specific warning on ads can act as a counterinfluence to an ads’ appeal by making it appear less attractive and less persuasive than if the ad contained only a general warning. This effect was especially true for smokers. Subjects also rated an ads as more attractive, more persuasive and less credible when it showed an attractive model than when it did not. Being pretested on their beliefs about the hazards of smoking resulted in high attractiveness and persuasion ratings and in smokers’ recalling and recognizing more of the specific warnings that appears on ads. Practical and theoretical implications for the results are discussed.

False

True

False

women

college

165

The Incidence and Severity of Burn Injuries Following Project Burn Prevention

MacKay, Annette

Rothman, Kenneth J.

Project Burn Prevention, an educational program about burn safety, was implemented in the Greater Boston area from October 1977 through May 1978. The program consisted of three components: a media campaign, a school-initiated intervention, and a community-initiated intervention. Estimates of burn incidence and severity of injury because of scald, flame, electrical or contact burns, or smoke inhalation were made on all patients coming to target-or comparison-area hospitals for a four-year period before the program, the eight months during the program, and the 12 months after the program. Analysis of burn incidence during and after interventions showed that the school-initiated intervention did not reduce the incidence or severity of burn injuries. The community initiated intervention may have brought about a moderate, temporary reduction in the rate of burn injuries, although the increase in burn incidence observed for the media campaign of educational messages broadcast to the Greater Boston area suggests that the more plausible explanation for this effect is random variation in burn incidence.

False

166

Preventing Smoking: Evaluating the Potential Effectiveness of Cigarette Warnings

Malouff, John

Schutte, Nicola

Frohardt, Mike

Wendy Deming

Devona Mantelli

We examined the potential effectiveness of U.S. government cigarette warnings in preventing adolescent smoking. In Study 1,112 seventh graders rated the effectiveness of four currently required warnings and four possible other warnings and answered questions about the meaning of certain words in the warnings. In Study2, 115 seventh graders read all eight warnings one day and tried to recall them the next day. In Study 4, 25 seventh graders participated in a focus session in which they discussed the effectiveness of each of the eight warnings. The results of the studies showed that the four different evaluation strategies had convergent validity and that two current warnings and two proposed warnings are significantly more potentially effective than the other two current warnings. Our results also provided information about why some warnings are more potentially effective than others.

The Journal of Psychology, 126 (4), 371-383

False

True

False

seventh, eighth, and ninth graders

167

The effectiveness of two types of witness appeal sign

Manstead, A.S.R.

Lee, J.S.

The effectiveness of two types of sign which appeal for witness to serious traffic accidents was investigated. One type (old sign) presents verbal information on a single board. The other type (new sign) presents a mixture of verbal and pictorial information in a sequence of three components signs. Data concerning the noticing, description and interpretation of these signs were collected from drivers and pedestrians by means of roadside interviews conducted after subjects had passed one or other type of sign, The central findings was that the new sign was more effective than the old sign in communicating the witness appeal message to drivers, largely because it was much more likely to be noticed; whereas the old sign was more effective for pedestrians. Difference due to sex and age of respondents were found, as were effects due to familiarity with test road. These findings are discussed and recommendations made for the design of future witness appeal signs.

Ergonomics 1979, vol 22, no. 10, 1125-1140

1979

False

True

False

True

False

168

Evaluating the Impact of Alcohol Warning Labels

Mayer, Robert N.

Smith, Ken R.

Scammon, Debra L.

This paper describes the rationale, methodology, data collection, and preliminary results of a study to evaluate the impact of recently mandated warning labels on alcohol beverage containers. Data collection began in April 1989 and has proceeded at three-month intervals through July 1990. The results reported here involve three data points in each of the pre- and post- warning periods. The study also takes advantage of a non-exposed, non-equivalent comparison group to identify the independence effect, if any, of the labels. The results suggest that the warning have archived a considerable level of public awareness, with the admonition against drinking during pregnancy being the most memorable portion of the warning. But there is no evidence yet that the labels have affected knowledge of the health and safety risks associated with alcohol or self-reported alcohol consumption.

False

169

Audible Warning Signals For Police Vehicles

McClelland, I.L.

Ten audible warning signals, selected by the Police Scientific Development branch as alternatives to the current signal, were evaluated in the laboratory in comparison with the conventional signal as to their ‘attention getting’ effect. Forty-two subjects were required to detect signals of rising intensity against a background of in-car noise whilst also carrying out a tracking task. The main conclusion of the study is that a significant improvement over the conventional signal can be achieved. It is also recommended that any change in audible warning signals should be applied to all appropriate vehicles.

Applied Ergonomics 1980, 11.3, 165-170

1980

False

True

False

True

False

170

Informing patients About Drug Side Effects

Morris, Louise A.

Kanouse, David E.

Two hundred forty-nine newly diagnosed hypertensive patients prescribed thiazide medication were required for study. Two-thirds were give a leaflet or patient package insert (PPI) that described the drug and its possible side effects, and one-third were not. At a revisit about 1 month later, patients were asked whether they had experienced any of 17 different “health problems.” For each problem that they experienced, they were asked whether they thought the problem was related to the medicine they were talking. Ten of the health problems were taken verbatim from the PPI’s list of possible drug side effects. Patients who received the PPI reported experiencing about the same number of side effects as the non-PPI subjects. However, those who received the PPI were more likely to attribute experienced reactions to the drug. This was true both for reactions specifically listed in the PPI and for similar reactions not listed. Results support the notion of an “attribution-labeling” process rather than a “suggestion” effect.

Journal of Behavioral Medicine, Vol.5, No.3, 1982

1982

False

True

False

171

Who Read

Mueller, William

Food labels are the most important source of nutritional information for two-thirds of Americans, but two-fifths think health claims are not very believable. Label readers are most likely to be nonworking women and other health conscious people. New labeling requirements will soon make it easier for all consumers to decide what they want to buy.

False

True

False

172

Driver Record Evaluation of a Drinking Driver Rehabilitation Program

Preusser, David F.

Ulmer, Robert G.

Adams, James R.

The Nassau Country Alcohol Safety Action Project conducted a driver rehabilitation program for convicted DWI/DWAI offenders from February, 1971 until June, 1973. During this period 2,805 drivers were invited to attend the rehabilitation program (experimental group) and 2,660 drivers were not invited (control group). Assignment to invited and non-invited groups was random. The driving records for each driver, invited and non-invited, were monitored through the New York State Department of Motor Vehicles. The results showed no difference between invited and non-invited groups in terms of number of DWI/DWAI recidivists. The invited group had more drivers involved in reported motor vehicle accidents than the non-invited group. This result was apparently due to the fact that invited drivers who participated in the program were not subject to license suspension/revocation, and may have experienced greater driving exposure. No difference was found between the groups in terms of non-alcohol conviction involvement.

False

173

Evaluating the Life Cycle of a Product Warning : Saccharin and Diet Soft Drink

Orwin, Robert G.

Schucker, Raymond E.

Stokes, Raymond C.

Controversy over the safety of saccharin came prominently into public view in February, 1977, with the release of a Canadian government-sponsored study showing that rats fed saccharin develop malignant bladder tumors. The results confirmed prior findings on the carcinogenicity of saccharin in animals. Shortly thereafter, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced its intention to ban the use of saccharin in foods and beverage. The so-called “Delaney Clause” of the food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act prohibits the use in foods of any ingredients shown to cause cancer in animals or humans.

False

174

Perceived Effectiveness of Danger Signs: A Multivariate Analysis

Polzella, Donald J.

Fifty-eight subjects were shown randomly-ordered facsimiles of 80 OSHA-standard danger signs and rated the signs on 13 dimensions related to perceived effectiveness. The data were analyzed by means of principal components analysis and a series of multivariate and univariate analyses of variance. Signs containing a hazard label and instruction (e.g. gasoline – No Smoking) were rated as least likely to be recalled at a later time; however, they were rated as easiest to understand, most informative, and most likely to be complied with. Signs containing a hazard label only (e.g. Poison) were rated as lease informative and most difficult to understand; however, they were rated as most likely to be recalled, as depicting a high degree of danger, and likely to be complied with. Signs containing instructions only (DO NOT ENTER) were rated as generally less effective.

Human Factors Society 36th- 1992

1992

True

False

True

False

True

False

18-21

male and female

undergraduate

175

Long-term Effect of a Behavioral Safety Program

Ray, Paul S.

Purswell, Jerry L.

Bowen, David J.

This study was conducted to determine the persistence of the improved level of safety behavior archived by implementing a behavioral feedback program in a large jet engine maintenance facility. The safety program consisted of identifying safe work practices for a number of typical tasks, informing the experimental group of workers of the safe practices, then observing their performance, and rendering reinforcement in the form of feedback on their safety performance for these tasks. The program resulted in a significant improvement in the safety behavior of the experimental group while that of the control group remained virtually unaltered. In order to ascertain the long term effect of the program, the sampling study was conduced after two years, to determine the safety index level of the old experimental group. The result indicated that the safety index level of the group had fallen back almost to the pre-feedback program level. The follow-up study indicated that the beneficial effect of a safety program may not persist for a long period of time.

False

176

Pedestrian Signal Displays: An evaluation of Word Message and operation

Robertson, H. Douglass

In 1974, a study was initiated by the Federal highway Administration to define the problems associated with pedestrians crossing at urban intersections and to evaluate remedial measures aimed at reducing or eliminating these problems. The results of the problem identification phase of the study (1,2) indicated that pedestrian signal displays were the source of several problems and that certain improvements in the displays could result in a higher level of compliance, safer pedestrian behavior, and better user understanding

True

False

True

False

177

Driver Education and Fatal Crash Involvement of Teenaged Drivers

Robertson, Leon S.

Zador, Paul L.

Fatal crash involvement of teenagers per licensed driver and per population in 27 states was related to the proportions of teenagers who received high school driver education. Among 16-17 year olds, driver education was associated with a great increase in the number of license drivers, without a decrease in the fatal crash involvement per 10,000 licensed drivers. About 80 percent pf the 16-17 year olds who took high school driver education obtained license that they would not otherwise have obtained until age 18 or thereafter. The net effect is much higher death involvement rates per 10,000 population, on average, in states with greater proportions of 16-17 year olds receiving high school driver education. The data suggest that most teenagers would obtain licenses when they are 18-19 years old, irrespective of high school driver education, and indicate that differences among the licensed 18-19 year old drivers were not significantly related to either high school driver education or delayed licensure.

False

178

A Poster Campaign for Improving Safety on Shipyard Scaffolds

Saarela, Kaija Leena

In a constantly changing work environment, hazards for occupational accidents are created easily. In these circumstances, more demands are made on the workers’ ability to identify and to control the hazards. The objective of this study is to determine whether hazard consciousness among workers can be enhanced by a poster campaign. Attention was also paid to the role of the poster campaign in improving safety. The campaign was conducted in the shipbuilding industry and was directed primarily. Local conditions of the shipyard under study were taken into account in creating the campaign material. After the campaign the workers were more conscious of hazards associated with the use of scaffolds, and the number of occupational accidents was reduced in the intervention area. Improving safety at a workplace is a continual process affected by numerous factors. A poster campaign is one such action contributing to this process.

Journal of Safety Research, Vol.20, pp. 177-185, 1989

1989

False

179

The Impact of Product Hazard Information on Consumer Buying Decisions: A Policy-Capturing Approach

Schwartz, David R.

dePontbriand, Rene J.

An underlying assumption in providing product warning labels is that consumers will make use of hazard information when buying and using products. The present study demonstrated that the policy-capturing procedure is a useful and applicable approach to examining the effects of hazard information independent of other information in purchasing decisions. The results indicate that hazard information did influence subjects buying decisions. The policy-capturing procedure also permitted an assessment of the impacts of hazard information in terms of the other factors such as product cost and effectiveness.

Proceeding of the Human Factors Society-27th Annual Meeting-1983

1983

False

180

Warning and Purchase Intentions for Pest-Control Products

Silver, N. Clayton

Leonard, David C.

Ponsi, Kathryn A.

Michael S.Wogalter

We investigated the variables associated with people’s willingness to read warnings on household pest-control products and their likelihood of purchasing these products. Seventy college-aged and 20 older participants examined a set of pest-control products and responded to a questionnaire assessing perception of the products, the packaging, and the warnings. Result show that product hazardousness, warning understand-ability, and warning attractiveness were strongly related to people’s willingness to read the warnings. A different set of variables was related to purchasing intentions. Participants reported greater willingness to purchases products that were more familiar and had more attractive packaging. Participants were more willing to read warnings that contained more statements and had readability scores at higher grade levels, a result that appeared to be sue to their common relationship with perceived hazard. We discuss the results with respect to the relative independence of the variables related to willingness to read warning and purchasing intentions. Finding suggest that manufacturers can place appropriate and effectiveness warnings on pest-control products without necessarily reducing buying intentions.

False

True

False

college age and 20 older

male and female

undergraduate

181

The Effect of Consumer Education on Consumer Product Safety Behavior

Staelin, Richard

Increasing the knowledge level of consumers with respect to safety principle has been suggested as one method of reducing the number of consumer product related injuries. This paper describes the results of a pilot aimed at increasing consumer knowledge and presents a new method for analyzing the effects of such a program.

Journal of Consumer Research Vol.5 June 1978

1978

False

182

Teaching Facts about Drugs: Pushing or Preventing?

Stuart, Richard B.

Nine hundred thirty-five and ninth-grad students in two suburban junior high schools were randomly assigned to experimental drug education or control groups. A 10-session fact-oriented drug education program was offered in two formats (student or teacher) and with three sets of contents (lesser drugs only, major drugs only or both sets combined). The program was evaluated through the use of a self-report measure of drug information, drug use, and attitudes relating to drug use. Results indicated that relative to controls, subjects receiving drug education significantly increased their knowledge about drugs decreased. Neither format nor content factors were shown to influence the results of the program. When the interaction among drug use, knowledge, and worry was examined, it was shown that use tends to rise as a function of the combination of increased knowledge and reduced worry. This combination of factors was not sufficient as a predictor of drug use, however, suggesting the influence of other, untested factors. Within the limitations posed by several qualifications, it is suggested that these findings support the notion that drug education may not necessarily e positive in its effect, indicating the need for precise measurement of program out comes.

Journal of Educational Psychology 1974, Vol.66, No.2, p189-201

1974

False

183

Activating a safety message from truck drivers’ memory: an experiment in a work zone

Summala, H.

Pihlman, M.

In Late June 1988, The Swedish Road Administration sent each of Sweden’s 30,000 truck drivers a music tape “Easy trucker” with information concerning driving in work zones; it mainly emphasized the fact that road workers are stress and afraid of large vehicles that pass them too fast and too close in maintenance and construction zones. In this study, truck driver behavior was measured, once before and three times after release of the tape, in a selected work zone which was kept approximately the same for four months. No change in truck speeds in the work zone was found to result from the campaign either during or after work hours. However, the campaign consistently increased truck drivers’ lateral safety margins with respect to a worker standing at the edgeline about 100 m from the beginning of the work area, in comparison to car drivers. In the presence of oncoming vehicles neither lateral shift nor compensatory speed decrement occurred. This study demonstrates that it is not easy to show measurable effects of a campaign in driver behavior; that for any effects to occur, the association between safety message ant the proper situation should be clear enough and that drivers prefer responses with no costs, such as lateral shift, rather that those with even a small subjective cost such as speed decrement.

Safety Science, 16 (1993) p.675-687

1993

False

184

Telling People How Thing Work

Szlichcinski, K.P.

Although it is the aim of ergonomists to make the operation of machines and systems as self-evident as possible, instructions usually have to be provided since the cost of completely self-explanatory apparatus may be excessive or its complexity may make it impracticable. When a person meets a novel piece of apparatus he will have expectations about how it may work. People tend to read instructions to confirm their expectations, so that anything unexpected in the operation of the apparatus must be emphasized in the instructions if it cannot be avoided in the design. It is important to determine exactly who will use the instructions and design them accordingly. The best combination of pictorial and verbal materials must be found to make the instructions as easy to understand as possible. Not everyone automatically looks for the instructions when they cannot make something work the first time they meet it. It is the responsibility of the designer to ensure operating instructions attract attention.

Applied Ergonomics March 1979

1979

False

185

The Impact of Safety Warnings on Perception and memory

Ursic, Michael

Little research has been done concerning consumer product safety warnings. This study using 91 undergraduates, attempts to alleviate this void through an experiment in which the design and presence of a safety warning are systematically varied. The presence of a warning is found to have a positive impact on an individual’s perception of the effectiveness and safety of a brand. The use of a pictogram, the strength word of a signal word, and the use of capital letters in a safety warning are found to have little effect on perception of a brand or on memory of safety information.

Human Factors 1984

1984

False

True

False

True

False

undergraduate

186

Evaluation of a Deceleration Warning Light for Reducing Rear-end Automobile Collisions

Voevodsky, John

An amber light, center mounted on the rear of several hundred San Francisco taxicabs, was designed to communicate information about the taxi’s deceleration to following drivers. The light, activated by the use of the brake pedal, was pulsed in a controlled fashion at a rate, duty cycle, and intensity that varied exponentially with a component of deceleration. A comparison of an experimental group (with the light for 12.3 million miles) with a control group (without the light for 7.2 million miles) revealed the light prevented 5.4 collisions, 1.02 cab driver injuries, and $643 of taxicab per million miles.

Journal of Applied psychology 1974

1974

False

True

False

187

Injury Severity and Likelihood in Warnings

Wogalter, Michael S.

Barlow, Todd

The experiments examined the influence of injury likelihood and severity in warnings on product hazard perceptions (Experiment 1) and Behavioral compliance (Experiment 2). In Experiment1, participants were given a set of front panel labels for 10 household consumer products. Warnings on the labels were constructed by manipulating the likelihood (low vs. high) of injury. Labels lacking a warning served as controls. Participants rated the product labels under the guise of a marketing study in which most of the questions concerned product familiarity, cost, and label attractiveness. Only one question was of interest which probed the level of hazard by the products. The results showed that (1) the presence of a warning increased the products judged level of hazard, (2) products with high severity warnings were viewed to be more hazardous than products with low severity warnings, and (3) likelihood of injury in the warning had no hazard perceptions. Experiment 2 used a chemistry laboratory demonstration task to test effects of injury likelihood and severity in a warning on compliance behavior (i.e., wearing gloves as directed by the warning). Greater compliance was shown when warned of a more severe injury, but only when the injury was of lower likelihood. In general, both experiments showed that injury severity warning effectiveness to a greater extent than injury likelihood. The result suggest that to inform people of a hazard and to motivate them to comply with a directed behavior, product warnings should communicate the severity of consequences.

Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings

True

False

undergraduate

188

Perceived Effectiveness of Environmental Warnings

Wogalter, Michael S.

Desaulniers, David R.

Godfrey, Sandra S.

This study examined perceived effectiveness of warning signs for various hazard situations. Four-statement signs contained a signal word, hazard statement, a consequence statement, and an instruction statement. Four additional three-statement signs, each with a different statement systematically removed from the four-statement sign, were used, for a total of 5 signs for each hazard situation. The results of experiments 1 and 2 indicated that removing content statements reduced perceived effectiveness. Hazard and situation statements were the most important statements, showing the greatest in effectiveness when deleted. Signs for the most hazardous situations were perceived as the most effective warnings. Experiment 3 examined redundancy of statement in a sign. The results suggested that the deletion of redundant statements, particularly signal words, had less influence on effectiveness. The hazard statement showed the lowest redundancy statement with it producing the greatest effectiveness decrement when deleted.

Human Factor Perspectives on Warnings

False

True

False

189

Consumer Product Warnings: The Role of Hazard Perception

Wogalter, Michael S.

Brelsford, John W.

Desaulniers, David R.

Laughery, Kenneth R.

Three studies examined factors associated with people’s hazard perceptions of consumer products. A specific interest was how these perceptions relate to willingness to read product warnings. In Study 1, 72 generically-named products were rated on perceived hazard, familiarity, and several expectations associated with warnings, including willingness to read them. Willingness to read warnings was found to have a strong positive relationship with perceived hazard. Though familiarity was negatively related to willingness to read warnings, it provided little predictive value beyond perceived hazard. In addition, products as more hazardous were expected to have warnings, to have them in close proximity to the product, and to be less aesthetically by prominent warnings. Since hazard perception was found to be an important determinant of willingness to read warnings, potential components of hazard perception were examined in studies 2 and 3. Study 2 showed that perceived severity of injury related more strongly to perceptions of hazard than likelihood of injury. In Study 3, participants generated accident scenarios and rated the severity and likelihood of each scenario. For each product, they also judged overall hazard and their intent to behave cautiously. Results supported the two earlier studies and showed that severity of the first generated scenario was most predictive of hazard perception. Theoretical implications and applications for warning design are discussed.

Journal of Safety Research 1991

1991

False

True

False

undergraduate

190

Relative Contribution of likelihood and Severity of Injury to Risk Perceptions

Young, Stephen L.

Wogalter, Michael S.

Brelsford, John W. , Jr.

The degree of caution that people are willing to take for a given product is largely determined by their perceptions of the risk associated with that product. Research suggests that risk perceptions are determined by the objective likelihood or probability of encountering potential hazards (Slovic, Fischhoff, and Lichtenstein, 1979). However, there is also research suggesting that objective likelihood plays little or no role in determining risk perceptions. Rather, risk is determined by the subjective dimension of the hazard or in other words, the severity of injury (Wogalter, Desaulniers and Brelsford, 1986,1987). The presence research examined aspects of these two studies in an attempt to reconcile the observed differences. Subject evaluated either the Wogalter et al. (1986, 1987) Products or the Slovic et al. (1979) items on eight rating questions. Results demonstrated that severity of injury was the foremost predictor of perceived risk for the Wogalter products, but that likelihood of injury was primarily responsible for rating of risk for the Slovic items. The two lists differed substantially on all the dimensions evaluations evaluated, suggesting that the content of the lists is responsible for the contrary findings. In a second study, subjects rated another set of generic consumer products. These ratings showed a pattern of results similar to the Wogalter products. Overall, this research: (a) explains the basic for conflicting results in the risk perception literature, and (b) demonstrates that severity of injury, and not likelihood of injury, is the primary determinant of people’s perceptions of risk for common consumer products.

Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings

False

191

Promoting Increased Use of Ear Protectors in Noise Through Information Feedback

Zohar, Dov

Cohen, Alexander

Azar, Naomi

Workers in a noisy department of a metal fabrication plant took hearing tests before and at the end of their workshifts to a ascertain the extent of temporary hearing losses that occurred with and without earplugs being worn. This information was fed back to individual workers as a means for motivating greater use of ear protections issued for hearing conservation purposes. Subsequent observations of earplug users in this department for 5 months showed a steady increase, attaining a level of 85-90%. No more than 10% of the workers in another noisy department in the same plant, serving as a control group, worn earplugs over the same 5-month period after being given a standard lecture on hearing conservation in noise, later augmented by disciplinary threats. The effectiveness of the feedback technique in promoting earplug usage was explained as a two-state process involving individual reinforcement, and subsequent group adoption of new norms for accepted behavior.

Human Factors 1980

1980

False

192

Contour Separation And Sign Legibility

Anderton, P.J.

Cole, B.L.

Closely adjacent contours can reduce the legibility of a character or word, a physiological phenomenon known as contour interaction. The legibility of an alphanumeric legend can be reduced as a consequence of this phenomenon if the spacing between letters is narrowed, although it has been shown that the loss of legibility is usually too small to be of practical significance. In this paper it is shown that a bold surrounding contour can cause a more significant loss of legibility. However, variation in the luminance (brightness)) of the display within the range of 30 to 100 cd/sq.m. does not affect legibility or the extent of contour interaction.

False

True

False

True

False

193

The Assessment of Guide Sign Informational Load

Gordon, Donald A.

The informational load of highway guide signs was measured in laboratory experimentation by having subjects view projected highway signs and choose the highway lanes leading to preassigned destinations. The informational load was measured in terms of response times and errors. Subjects were able to very quickly select the proper lane when they viewed common freeway signs and fictitious signs with as many as eight possible destinations. The inclusion on the sign display of unfamiliar destinations and nonguidance information did not appreciably slow subjects’ response. When the destination was not on the sign, subjects had to make navigational decisions, relating sign information to what they knew about the routes. The associated response times were significantly longer than when scanning alone was required. The findings are interpreted in terms of their implications for the design of highway signs.

Human Factors

False

True

False

True

False

194

Evaluating Pictographic Symbols : An Automotive Application

Green, Paul

Pew, Richard W.

Fifty university students participated in a laboratory experiment which examined 19 pictographic symbols previously used or proposed for labeling automobile controls and displays. Association norms, measures of familiarity, and magnitude estimates of the symbols’ communicativeness were collected. Twenty of these subjects also participated in a paired associate learning task and a two-alternative, forced-choice reaction-time task in which they made same-different judgments in response to verbally presented symbol labels followed by visually presented pictograms. It was found that, in general, the relative order of merit for the individual symbols was not consistent across tasks. Specifically, ratings of communicativeness were found to be well correlated with associative strength and to a lesser extent with reaction time, but associative strength was only weakly correlated with reaction time. Ease of learning was found to be an independent measure.

Human Factors, 1978, 20(1), 103-114

1978

False

True

False

True

False

17-25

male and female

university student

195

Individual Differences and The Perception of Traffic Signs

Loo, Robert

The study focused on the relationship between field dependence and the ability to perceive traffic signs in embedded and disembedded context as measured by verbal reaction times. Intercorrelations among the reaction times, personality measures, and driving record items were also tested. Twenty-eight females were blocked into four quartiles according to their score on the Group Embedded Figures Test. Subjects completed the traffic-sign task, the Eysenck Personality Inventory, and a driving experience questionnaire. Field-dependent subjects had longer reaction times to embedded traffic signs and more traffic accidents than did field-independent subjects. Also, extraverts had longer reaction times to the embedded traffic signs, more accidents, and more traffic convictions than introverts. No relationships were found for neuroticism.

Human Factors, 1978, 20(1), 65-74

1978

False

True

False

True

False

19-27

female

196

Multi-Model Cockpit Warnings : Pictures, Words, Or Both?

Selcon, S.J.

Taylor, R.M.

Shadrake, R.A.

This paper examined the requirement for, and benefits of, multi-modal information presentation in cockpit warning systems. It also attempts to provide an account of the nature and levels of processing involved when information from one source is integrated with a supposedly redundant additional source to provide a performance gain in choice reaction time (RT) tasks, and its applicability to other cockpit systems. An experiment is described which used warning/caution ‘icons’ (pictorial representations of danger situations) and verbal warning messages, both singly and in combination. The visual icons were generated by RAF aircrew, using an iterative design process, as being meaningful pictorial representations of real-world warnings. Subjects were required to identify whether the situations presented warnings i.e. high priority/immediate action or cautions i.e. low priority/immediate awareness. The results obtained showed a significant decrease in response latencies when correlated bimodal information was given as compared to the uni-modal conditions. The high level of abstraction of these icons strongly implied that the performance gains occurring must be as the result of the integration of ‘information’ rather than ‘data’. Subjective Situational Awareness Rating Technique (SART) scored also shower that benefits may also be accrued through reduced workload and increased depth of understanding. The results of these experiments are considered in terms of current Information Processing and Neural Network theories and an attempt to provide a cognitive model of this integrality effect is also described.

Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting 1992

1992

False

True

False

True

False

19-30

197

Divided Attention in a Reaction time index of traffic sign perception

Testin, Frank J.

Dewar, Robert E.

Laboratory studies of traffic sign perception have often neglected to duplicate the divided attention demands of the driving task, even though it has been suggested that the inclusion of a loafing task would increase the validity of such research. The present experiment examined the need for this division of attention by requiring subjects to identify traffic sign messages while performing a second, loading task involving the cognitive components of detection, identification or memory. A control group received no loading task. The reaction times to 16 signs were correlated with the legibility distances of the same signs measured in a previous roadway experiment. Contrary to the conclusion of Dewar et al. (1976) that a loading task may increase the validity of the reaction time index, the present study found no advantage to using a loading task in association with the reaction time measure of traffic sign perception.

Ergonomics, 1981, Vol.24, No.2, 111-124

1981

False

True

False

20.5

male and female

undergraduate

198

Evaluation of an Experimental Central Warning System with a Synthesized Voice Component

Wheale, John L.

The experiment monitored the use of an experimental central warning system by experienced pilots. The warning system incorporated audio warnings, voice messages, and panel legends. The voice messages were produced by a Votrax synthesizer. Warning responses were assessed during a realistic flying task. Audio warnings produced significantly faster responses than panel legends or voice messages. Voice messages and audio warnings had a greater distracting effect on subjects’ responses than panel legends. Workload level did not affect response to either the voice or audio warnings but response to panel legends did lengthen significantly at high levels of workload, The Votrax voice messages were dislike by the pilots who adopted a strategy of cross-referring to panel legends upon hearing the attention-getting sound which preceded the voice messages because they had difficulty understanding the Votrax messages. The results suggest that Votrax voice messages may only augment the noise level of the flight deck and could effectively be replaced with an attention-getting sound and panel legend. It is also suggested that crew response to synthetic voice messages which can be understood on first representation will be more positive than their response to Votrax messages.

Space Environ. Med. 54(6): 517-523, 1983

1983

False

True

False

True

False

199

299

Response Times to Left and Right Directional Signs

Whitaker, Lessie A.

In two experiments, choice response times to word and arrow signs were measured. Subjects were asked to respond to visual stimuli which presented right or left directional instructions. Both left and right-handed subjects were tested. In each experiment, a different response mode (vocal and ballistic lateral movement) was used; they produced similar results. Choice response times were faster for arrow directions than for words. Permissive stimuli (DO) produced faster responses than did prohibitive (DO NOT). Response times to left stimuli did not differ from latencies to right stimuli. Subject’s hand preference did not influence choice response times or accuracy of responses. Some conclusions about designing traffic signs to facilitate left-right directional decisions are drawn.

Human Factors , 1981, 23(4), 447-452

1981

False

True

False

True

False

200

The Surgeon General’s Warnings in Outdoor Cigarette Advertising

Davis, Ronald M.

Kendrick, Juliette S.

Outdoor advertising media represent a major vehicle by which cigarette companies promote their products. We investigated the readability of the Surgeon General’s warning in cigarette advertisements (ads) in two outdoor media: billboards and taxicab ads. In an experiment in metropolitan Atlanta under typical driving conditions, observers were able to read the entire health warning on 18 (46%) of 39 street billboards but on only two (5%) of 39 highway billboards. In contrast, the content of the ads (i.e., brand name, other wording, and notable imagery) could be recognized under the same conditions on more than 95% of the billboards. In a similar study of 100 taxicab cigarettes ads in New York City, observers were unable to read the health warning in any of the ads but were able to identify the brand name in all ads and notable imagery in 95% of the ads. Significant differences between the readability of the warning and identification of the advertising content persisted even when partially read warnings were considered to have been read. We conclude that the Surgeon General’s warning is not readable in its current form in the vast majority of billboard and taxicab ads. Factors contributing to unreadability include the small size of the letters, the excessive length of the warnings, the distance between the viewers and the ads and movement between the viewers and the ads.

False

True

False

True

False

True

False

201

Layout, Organization, And The effectiveness of Consumer Product Warnings

Desaulniers, David R.

Three experiments are presented examining the effects of warning layout (spatial structure) and organization (semantic structure) on the readability and memorability of warning information. In Experiment 1 these factors were tested in a 2(levels of layout) x 3 (level of organization) factorial design. The two levels of lay out were the typical paragraph format and an experimental version having the appearance of an outline. Warning content was organized according to hazard, type of statement, or randomly. Warnings were ranked according to three criteria; eye appeal, was of processing, and effectiveness. In general, warnings in outline layout and type of hazard organization were ranked as having greater eye appeal, easier to process, and more effective than alternative organization-layout conditions. In Experiment 2 and 3, only warning layout was manipulated and a cover story was used to elicit reading and compliance behaviors likely to occur in the home. Experiment 2 results indicate that, when asked to read the warnings, subjects spent less time reading warnings in paragraph layout than warnings in outline layout. In Experiment 3, the outline layout were read and complied with by a larger proportion of subjects than warnings in paragraph layout. Implications for warning design and future research are discussed

Human Factors Perspective on Warnings

True

False

True

False

202

The Effects of Format in Computer-based Procedure Displays

Desaulniers, David R.

Gillan, Douglas J.

Two experiments were conducted to investigate display variables likely to influence the effectiveness of computer-based procedure displays. In Experiment 1, procedures were presented in three formats, Text, Extended-Text, and Flowchart. Text and Extended-Texas are structured prose formats which differ in the spatial density of presentation. The Flowchart format differs from the Text format in both syntax and spatial representation. Subjects were required to use the procedures to diagnose a hypothetical system anomaly. The results indicate that performance was most accurate with the Flowchart format. Although overall completion times did not differ significantly across formats, the Flowchart format required significantly less time for step implementation. In Experiment 2m procedure window size was varies (6 line, 12 line and 24-line) in addition to procedure format. In the Flowchart format were completed with greater accuracy than procedures in wither of the text formats. As predicted, completion times for Flowchart procedures decreased with increasing window size; however, accuracy of performance decreased substantially. Implications for the design of computer-based procedure displays are discussed.

Human Factors 32nd Annual Meeting 1988

1988

False

True

False

True

False

203

Uncertainty Reduction in Product Warnings: Effects of Fear and Color

deTurck, Mark A.

Goldhaber, Gerald M.

Richetto, Gary M.

Product warning messages are designed to reduce consumers’ uncertainty about how to use a product safely. Inconsistencies in the message communicated by product warnings may mislead consumers about the degree of hazard associated with a given product. Alcoholic beverages are a unique consumer product. Only recently have alcoholic beverages been labeled with warning messages. Very little is known about the extent to which the product warnings reduce consumers’ uncertainty regarding the hazards of alcoholic beverages. The current study examined the effects of inconsistency in a warning message for alcoholic beverages. This issue is especially pertinent given the norms for consuming alcoholic beverages. Based on the fear appeal literature and warning standards, it was argued that a warning with consistency between the hazard communicated by the color and the degree of risk in the hazard statement (low vs. moderate fear) would be more effective than a warning that is inconsistent in the degree of hazard it communicates. More specifically, it was hypothesized that a moderate fear warning would be more effective than a low fear warning, but that this effect would be particularly pronounced when the moderate fear warning was in red. Results were consistent with the hypothesis. The implications of the results are discussed.

Journal of Products Liability Vol.13, pp.339-346 (1991)

1991

False

True

False

True

False

male and female

university

204

The Semantic Differential as an Index of Traffic Sign Perception and Comprehension

Dewar, Robert E.

Ells, Jerry G.

There is a need to develop and validate simple, inexpensive techniques for the evaluation of traffic sign messages. This paper examined the semantic differential (a paper-and-pencil test which measures psychological meaning) as a potential instrument for such evaluation. Two experiments are described, one relating semantic differential scores to comprehension and the other relating this index to glance legibility. The data indicate that semantic differential scores on all four factors (evaluative, activity, potency, and understandability) were highly correlated with comprehension of symbolic messages. These scores were unrelated to glance legibility of verbal messages, but two factors (evaluative and understandability) did correlate with glance legibility of symbolic messages. It was concluded that the semantic differential is a valid instrument for evaluating comprehension of symbolic sign messages and that it has advantages over other techniques.

Human Factors, 1977, 19(2), 183-189

1977

False

True

False

True

False

Male and Female

graduate student

205

An Evaluation of The Effect of Sign Brightness on The Sign-Reading Behavior of Alcohol-Impaired Drivers

Hicks, John A.

The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the relationship between highway sign brightness and alcohol impairment under night driving conditions. Sign brightness was controlled by varying sign reflectivity and head light brightness. Data were collected under controlled conditions with the subjects actually driving the vehicle. The dependent measure was the correct reading distance. Three blood alcohol concentrations (BAC’s) were investigated: sober, 0.08% and 0.15%. Fourteen subjects participated under a different BAC on each of three separate nights, Results confirmed the experimental hypothesis that high reflectance signs significantly increase sign-reading distance under night driving conditions and that alcohol-impaired drivers require significantly brighter signs. Increases in both sign reflectance and headlight brightness yielded significant improvements in sign-reading performance under all three BAC conditions. A significant interaction between the reflectance and headlight main effects indicated that the higher reflectance signs yield a greater relative improvement in sign reading performance under low-headlight conditions than under high-headlight conditions.

Human Factors, 1976, 18(1) 45-52

1976

False

True

False

True

False

21-53

male

206

Application of the Readability Concept to Patient-Oriented Drug Information

Morris, Louis A.

Myers, Ann

Thilman, Diane G.

The readability of four diazepam patient labeling documents was studied. For patient labeling documents were prepared on diazepam’s uses, side effects, adverse reactions, and potential for inducing dependency. The materials contained the same basic information but differed in vocabulary and complexity of sentence structure. A questionnaire was administered to 199 college students, or nonstudents who had completed at least one year of college, who were asked to read an excerpt from on e of the four documents. The questionnaire included a vocabulary test on 10 medical terms and a section for rating accuracy, clarity, appeal, and readability of the materials. The documents also were analyzed independently by two judges using 13 readability formulas. The study group showed wide variation in understanding of medical terms; the terms were correctly identified by the majority of persons, with the exception of “pulmonary” which was defined correctly by only 28%. Ratings for accuracy and quality of writing were similar for all four documents. For the other three factors – interest value, positive evaluation, and adult-readability – the easiest-to-read excerpt was rated lowest by the group. For the “adult readability” factor, the most-difficult-to-read version was rated highest. The relative ranks assigned the documents was similar for all the readability tests, but the readability estimates for a given document varied by as much as 12.6 grade levels. The study group’s estimates of readability were variably higher or lower than the readability test’s estimates. The study indicates that there are problems with relying on readability scores for assessment of difficulty and that patient labeling should be written for audience acceptance rather than for favorable reading scores.

Am J Hosp Pharm 1980;37:1504-9

1980

False

True

False

female

college

207

Perceived Readability of Warning labels with Varied Font Sizes and Styles

Clayton, Silver, N.

Braun, Curt C.

Warning readability is a major issue in the labeling of various consumer products. The purpose of the present research was to examine several variables that are associated with readability: font type, font weight, point size, and point size contrast between the signal word and the main body of the warning (signal word –text size difference). A sample of 40 undergraduate students and 22 elderly persons rated 24 ultra Tide detergent labels that contained a warning which varied across all levels of the type form variables. A composite variable “perceived readability” was formed from the averaged ratings from questions regarding how likely they would read the warning, its salience, and readability. Results showed that Helvetica type was perceived to be more readable than Times of Goudy. Moreover, Times was perceived to be more readable than Goudy. Bold type was perceived to be more readable than roman type. There was greater perceived readability of the warning when the main body was printed in 10-point size when compared to 8-point size. Results also showed that a signal word-text size difference of 2 points was perceived as more readable than a difference of 4 points. Implications for warning design are discussed.

Safety Science, 16 (1993) 615-625

1993

False

True

False

True

False

undergraduate

208

Alcohol Beverage Warnings in Print Advertisements

Barlow, Todd

Wogalter, Michael S.

This experiment investigated the impact of warnings in alcoholic beverage advertising by embedding warnings in print (magazine) advertisements. Warning conspicuity (size and contrast) and shape (plain rectangle, rectangle with signal icon, and circle/arrow) were manipulated. Under the assumption that the research was a marketing study concerned with print media, participants paged through a simulated magazine and evaluated each page on its visual appeal. Later they were given an unexpected memory test on the content, location, and configuration of the warnings. The results showed that information in highly conspicuous (larger, higher contrast) warnings was remembered better than in less conspicuous warnings, and that warning advertisements can communicate information about the hazards of alcohol consumption. Implications of the results are discussed, including their applicability to warnings for other kinds of consumer products advertised in the print medium.

Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1991

1991

False

True

False

True

False

True

209

The effects of Propaganda on Recall, Recognition and Behavior

Belbin, Eunice

A series experiments were conducted in which Road Safety Posters were displayed in a waiting room. Their effect was measured by: (a) the amount of information from the posters which was applied to the interpretation of photographs showing faulty traffic situations (Use scores); and (b) the amount of information contained on the posters which could be recalled (Recall scores). An attempt was made to investigate the reasons why on some occasions or with some subjects the information was recalled more than it was used, and why on other occasions or by other subjects it was used more than it was recalled. Four types of propaganda were displayed. Each had a significant effect on the use scores, but there was no significant difference between the effects of these four types on either use or recall. However, the previous experience of the subjects was shown to have a considerable effect on the results. The over-sixties, although comparatively bad at recalling the propagands, had use scores which compared favorably with those of the younger subjects. The subjects who had car-driving experience used the information from the posters to a significantly greater extent than the non-drivers. On the other hand, the drivers did not recall the propaganda any better than the non-drivers. There was also a tendency for the naval rating subjects to use more of the information than they recalled and for the students to recall as much or more than they used. When the tests were applied up to a period of 14 days after the display of propaganda there was a widening disparity between use and recall scores. At 14 days subjects still showed a slight tendency to use the information although they were not able to remember it. An attempt is made to explain these results by suggesting that when a subject is presented with an incidental learning situation, the meaningfulness be extracts from the material and his method of organizing it depends on his previous learned responses to similar material. Where his previous experience has entailed incorporation of the information into his activity, then the new material to be learned is likely to have meaning in relation to its practical application, a response which favors the retention of the information for use in other tasks, but not necessarily for recall. If his previous experience has been learning by memorizing his response to the new material will be organized accordingly; he is likely to learn in order to recall.

False

True

False

True

False

210

Memory for the Visual and Verbal Components of Print Advertisements

Childers, Terry L.

Heckler, Susan E.

Houston, Michael J.

A model is developed and proposed to describe the underlying processing of the visual and verbal components of print advertisements. Based upon past research, the processing of these two components of print advertisements is viewed as consisting of (1) different levels of processing, (2) elaborative encoding, and (3) encoding distinctiveness. An empirical test of the model indicates that the visual/pictorial component of the print ad is more elaborative and more distinctively encoded than the verbal component. Results of the research are discussed in terms of their implications for understanding vivid versus salient effects of information presentation.

False

True

False

True

False

211

Cuing Hazard Information for Consumer Products

Donner, Kimberly A.

Brelsford, John W.

Rice University undergraduates were given cued and non-cued consumer product questionnaire in order to determine the degree to which product curs would elicit user hazard knowledge, as measured by the number of generated accident scenarios. The difference in the number of scenarios generated by the two groups was not found to be statistically significant. However, there did exist a relatively strong, and significant, relationship between the number of generated accident scenarios and reported hazardousness, degree of precaution that would be taken, and the likelihood of reading the warning associated with the product. The relationship between the production of known accident information in the form of accident scenarios and these dimensions is thought to have implications for the content of product warnings.

Human Factors Society – 32nd Annual Meeting – 1988

1988

False

True

False

male and female

undergraduate student

212

The Effect of Adding Symbols to Written Warning Labels on User Behavior and Recall

Friedmann, Kayla

The use of consumer products by 144 college students was studied to determine the effects that (a) adding symbols to written warnings , (b) subjects’ familiarity with the product, and (c) type of hazard would have on their noticing, recalling, or complying with the warning. Subjective ratings of perceived confidence, hazardousness, likelihood of injury, and severity of injury were also collected. Across all behavioral measures there was a steady decline in the number of subjects who first noticed (88%), then read (46%), and finally followed the warning (27%). In some conditions, however, compliance levels were as high as 42%. Symbols added to written warning labels did not significantly increase levels of compliance. A significant positive relationship was found between the perceived hazardousness of the product and reading, following, and recalling the warning. Factors affecting the user’s motivation to read and follow on-product warnings were also noted.

Human Factors, 1988, 30(4), 507-515

1988

True

False

True

False

True

False

college

213

Short-Term Retention of Traffics Turn Restriction Signs

Hoffmann, Error R.

Macdonald, Wendy A.

Two laboratory experiments evaluated short-term retention of information from verbal and symbolic signs after following verbal (auditory mode) and pictorial (visual) forms of interfering activities. A differential interference effect was observed consistent with the dual coding hypothesis. From a practical viewpoint, neither type of sign appeared superior in terms of its likely retention in short-term memory by drivers.

Human Factors

False

True

False

True

False

17-46

male and female

undergraduate

214

Picture-Word Consistency and the Elaborative Processing of Advertisements

Houston, Michael J.

Childers, Terry L.

Heckler, Susan E.

Many advertisers believe the pictorial and verbal components of an ad should convey the same meaning. Based on theoretical and empirical evidence from a variety of areas, three experiments were conducted that show superior recall for ads in which the picture and copy convey discrepant information about product attributes when the picture and brand name are linked interactively. An elaborative processing explanation for the effect is supported by the finding that this superiority diminished if consumers have less opportunity to process the ad and form associative linkages in memory.

False

True

False

True

False

215

Nine Codes: A Comparative Evaluation of Human Performance with Some Numeric, Alpha and Alpha-Numeric Coding Systems

Hull, A.J.

This study examines, by the use of short-term memory techniques, the relative performance of similar groups of subjects with different types of high-capacity alpha, numeric or alpha-numeric coding systems. Coding systems of equivalent informational value, but of varying length and content of code, were not psychologically equivalent for the human operator; the results showed that the codes best processed were either very short, with not more than six items per code recalled; or, with longer codes, those arranged in pronounceable units.

Ergonomics, 1975, Vol. 18, No.5, 567-576

1975

False

True

False

True

False

216

Drivers and Road Signs

Backlund, F.

The function of the road sign system as an information channel for car drivers was investigated. The data were gathered from more than 5,000 car drivers stopped after passing a road sign on a Swedish highway. The main results are as follows. 1. The overall probability of a road sign being noticed on passing is not higher than about 0.5. 2. 2. The different signs studied form a scale of recording probability of perception extending from a low group with a probability of being perceived of about 0.25 up to a group with probabilities between 0.60-0.75. The rank order of the signs is consistent between occasions. 3. The results verified the outcome of a previous investigation by Johansson and Rumar, 1966 The main conclusion must be that the road sign system to a high degree does not achieve its purpose.

Ergonomics, 1970, Vol.13, No. 6, 749-759

1970

False

True

False

217

Consumer Product Warnings: Reception and Understanding of Warning Information by Final Users

Karnes, Edward W.

Three studies based on legal cases showed that application of human factors principles in writing and presenting warning information improves the understanding of risks, and knowledge of procedures to avoid risks. In simulated situations some evidence of behavior change was found. Evidence was also found for possible age and experience effects on perception of risk.

Elsevier Science Publisher B.V. (north-Holland), 1986

1986

False

True

False

female

218

The Use of Vivid Stimuli to Enhance Comprehension of the Content of Product Warning Messages

Kelley, Craig A.

Gaidis, William C.

Reingen, Peter H.

Thousands of consumers are injured annually using consumer products. It is intuitively plausible that vivid product warnings may improve communication of the hazards associated with product use, yet vividness effects have been difficult to demonstrate empirically. Vivid product warnings are shown to increase accurate memory of the hazards associated with product use by enhancing cognitive elaboration on the content of a product warning message. Moreover, vivid product warnings may not, in and of themselves, generate negative elaborations regarding the safety of the product in question.

Winter 1989, Vol,23 number 2

1989

False

True

False

219

Memory for Medical Information

Ley, Philip

The frequency with which patients fail to recall advice presented by their doctors is described. The amount forgotten is shown to be a linear function of the amount presented, to be correlated with the patient’s medical knowledge, anxiety level and possible age, but not with intelligence. It is probable that instructions and advice are more often forgotten than other information, and that this is the result of their low perceived importance, and their being presented late in the series of statements presented – there being (a) a primacy effect in recall of medical information, and (b) a tendency for statements perceived as more important to be better recalled. Experiments to control the content and amount of forgetting are described. Control of content can be obtained by use of the primacy and importance effects, while control of amount forgotten can be achieved by use of (a) simpler language, (b) explicit categorization, (c) repetition, and (d) concrete-specific rather than general-abstract advice statements.

British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology (1979), 18, 245-255

1979

False

True

False

220

Effects of Processing Depth on Memory for the Alcohol Warning Label

Mackinnon, David P.

Stacy, Alan W.

Nohre, Liva

R. Edward Geiselman

The experiment examined: (1) the effects of different types of processing of the alcohol beverage warning label on memory for the label content, (2) potential measures of memory for the alcohol warning label, and (3) whether cues to the alcohol warning label increase memory for the content of the label. We hypothesized that the warning label may be processed in three ways: (1) persons may read the label, (2) persons may read the label and describe its content to others, and (3) persons may see the label but not cognitively process the label. Processing effects were operationalized as three orienting tasks to the label (read, paraphrase, and count) which were compared to a control condition (no experimental exposure to the warning label). Four tests (free recall, recognition, word-stem completion, and controlled association) were compared. In one additional condition, subjects were cued to the warning label without prior experimental exposure. The free recall test was the most sensitive measure to different levels of processing. Average memory scores for the paraphrase and read conditions were higher than the count and control conditions. Average memory performance in the cued condition was superior to the control condition, suggesting that subjects remember the content of the warning from exposure to the label outside this experiment.

Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting 1992

1992

False

True

False

221

Effectiveness of Product Safety Warnings Over Time, And The Generalization of Warning Signs

Orr, Madeleine

Hughes, Stanley T.

The extent to which consumer’s attention for safety signs varies over time and the extent to which consumer’s impression of product safety are altered by the presence of a safety sign were investigated. A total of 60 subjects had one of two types of signs (safety message or security message) placed on the front of a VDU. Subjects were administered a questionnaire after either one or three weeks of exposure to the signs. Results indicate that safety signs can be rapidly habituated to if the sign’s content is not seen as relevant to the task at hand. In addition it was found that the presence of a safety sign resulted in subjects identifying more product related safety hazards.

Human Factors Society – 32nd – 1988

1988

False

True

False

engineer

222

Designing Warnings To be Read and Remembered

Rothstein, Remela R.

Three kinds of memory for on-product warning were tested as a function of four variables in an applied laboratory setting. The three kinds of memory tested were recall of hazards, recall of the means to avoid an accident, and recall of the action to take in the event of an accident, The four variables investigated were message length, serial position, message format, and pre-questionning. Basic research finding were substantiated in that message length, message format, and pre-questioning did have an effect on subsequent recall. However, the findings were not always in the expected direction and the effects were far from robust. Surprisingly, no significant effects of serial position were found for any of the three recall measures. Encoding problems due to the nature of the experiment, prior knowledge of warning information, and interference are discussed as explanations for unexpected effects.

Human Factors Society -29th 1985

1985

False

True

False

223

Memory of Instruction Manual warnings: Effects of Pictorial Icons and Conspicuous Print

Young, Stephen L.

Wogalter, Michael S.

The present research sought to determine whether the salience of warning messages would improve the memory of warnings in proceduralized instructions. Subjects studied one of four instruction manuals for a gas-powered electric generator under the guise that they would later operate the generator. In the manual, the appearance of eight different warning messages were altered in two ways: 1) The verbal messages were printed in either conspicuous print (larger with color highlighting) or in plain print (same as the other text). 2) The verbal warning messages were either accompanied by meaningfully-related icons or the icons were absent. Three kinds of memory tests were given to subjects. The results showed that subjects who received the manual containing Conspicuous Print, Icons Present warnings recalled the verbal warning content and the semantic meaning of the icons significantly better than subjects who received one of the other three manuals. Implications for the design of instruction manual warnings are discussed.

Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings.

False

True

False

True

False

True

False

undergraduate

224

Scripts In Memory for Text

Bower, Gordon H.

Black, John B.

Turner, Terrence J.

These experiments investigate people’s knowledge of routine activities (e.g. eating in a restaurant, visiting a dentist) and how that knowledge is organized and used to understand and remember narrative texts. We use the term script to refer to these action stereotypes. Two studies collected script norms: people described what goes on in detail during familiar activities. They largely agreed on the nature of the characters, props, actions, and the order of the actions. They also agreed on how to segment the low-level action sequences into constituent “scenes,” suggesting a hierarchical organization in memory of the activity. Other studies investigated memory for a text narrating actions from a script. Subjects tended to confuse in memory actions that were stated with unstated actions implied by the script. This tendency increased as more related script instances were studied. Subjects also preferred to recall script actions out of order tended to be recalled in canonical order. We also investigated whether the reading time for adjacent statements in a text varied with their distance apart in the underlying script. A statement at a one-step distance was read faster than one at a two or three-step distance; statements in the second half of a script were read faster than those in the first half. A final experiment found that goal-relevant deviations from a script were remembered better than script actions. The role of script knowledge in test memory was discussed, as was the relation of scripts to schema memory in general.

Cognitive Psychology 11, 177-220 (1979)

1979

False

True

False

undergraduate

225

Some Performance Correlates Of Technical Illustration Level

Hoecker, Douglas G.

This paper reports preliminary results from a pilot experiment to assess how levels of illustration affect the performance of persons who require technical documentation in order to solve a problem. Fifteen inexperienced undergraduates used an oscilloscope and a volt-ohmmeter to check out and troubleshoot the printed circuit board of an electrically – triggered oscilloscope camera. Each subject solved three similar problems, guided by a “core path” of textual procedures that remained constant while the level of illustration was changed from one problem to the next. Time and error data both showed a large effect (roughly a factor of 2 times “experienced” levels) for the interaction of illustration level and experience on the problem. While these illustration level and experience on the problem. While these illustration levels had little effect on how much time subjects spent visually consulting the illustrations themselves, there were effects on time spent doing other components of the task.

Human Factors -26th- 1982

1982

False

True

False

226

The Impact of a Drug Information Sheet on the Understanding and Attitude of Patients about Drugs

Johnson, Michael W.

Mitch, William E.

Sherwood, Jane

Lynn Lopes

Adelia Schmidt

Howard Hartley

A proposed Food and Drug Administration program to require written information with prescription drugs could cost $500 million annually; the American Medical Association has implemented a similar, voluntary program costing more than $3 million. However, the educational impact of written drug information has not been studied. We evaluated one-page drug information sheets using an objective examination. The baseline score of 71 patients was 3.9 of 6.0. Patient tested before and one day after one month by +1.1; those not given the sheet had no improvement. Changes in attitudes and incidence of reported adverse effects seemed to be random and unrelated to the information sheet. Thus, drug information sheet may be a useful adjunct to patient education.

False

True

False

227

Symbolic Representation of Abstract Concepts

Jones, S.

Symbolic representation of two abstract concepts used in road signs, type of message and prohibition, was investigated. The use of two coding variables, color and shape, was found to be unnecessary in most cases – the shape of the sign alone proved sufficient to convey these concepts. In the case of the concept of prohibition, the two signs used were found to differ in the degree of prohibitiveness which they conveyed. The concrete version, which included an interdictory stroke concrete symbols, elicited the most explicitly prohibitive interpretation.

Ergonomics, 1978, Vol. 21, No.4, 573-577

1978

False

True

False

True

False

True

228

Safety Perceptions and Information Sources for ATVs

Karnes, Edward W.

Leonard, S. David

Newbold, Herbert C.

Safety issues concerning all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) have become important for human factors professionals, because of the need to reduce the accidents and injuries associated with their use. Human factors experts have also been called upon to testify in legal suits occasioned by some accidents. This paper discussed some of the problems associated with the safety of ATVs and presents data concerning riders and observers ability to estimate their speed. Speed estimates are lower than actual speed at low speeds and higher than actual speeds at high speeds. It is concluded that information about the speed capacities of ATVs is important consumer information and should be made conspicuous in advertising and other informational channels about ATVs

Human Factors Society -32nd Annual Meeting – 1988

1988

False

True

False

True

False

229

Risk Perception and Use of Warnings

Leonard, S. David

Hill, G. William

Karnes, Edward W.

The purpose of the studies was to develop information about how the general public perceived the degree of danger represented by signal words in warnings. Although many organizations have guidelines for the determination of what signal words are to be used with specific hazards, these are usually unknown to the public. For 15 items that had been rated for the seriousness of risk, 288 subjects were asked to indicate which signal word they would use to inform others of the hazard. Signal words that had been found to rate high in seriousness by Leonard, Karnes, and Schneider (1988) tended to be used more with items rated as higher risks. Differences were found among age groups with older subjects using signal words that carried more serious connotations. The possible warnings that might be used were discussed.

Human Factors Society – 1989

1989

False

True

False

230

EID In this issue

Laughery, Kenneth R.

As consumers, we deal with flammable products almost daily: filling our cars with gas, painting, and using lighter fluid, solvents, glues, and many other products. To prevent user injuries, these products are labeled in compliance with regulations and standards. However, in order for the labels to prevent accidents, consumers need to understand them. Although systems have been developed in the United States and Canada to specify warning terminology, the extent to which lay product users understand these terms is not clear. To evaluate this situation, we conducted a field study to examine product users understanding of hazard identification terms on flammability labels.

Human Factors Applications July 1993

1993

False

True

False

231

Are Current Product Labeling Systems Effective?

Main, Bruce W.

Rhoades, Timothy P.

Frantz, J. Paul

Consumers use flammable products every day when fueling their cars, painting their homes, stripping their furniture, lighting their barbecues, and conducting numerous other activities. Most of these products carry warning labels to help prevent consumers from injuring themselves while using them. If these labels are to prevent accidents, however, they must be clear enough for consumers to understand.

NFPA Journal January/February 1994

1994

False

True

False

20-61

male

232

Kickback Hazard: Do Manufacturer Warnings and Instructions Help saw Users Understand the Risks?

Moore, Michael Garth

Rennell, Gerald C.

Ten professional carpenters were surveyed regarding their understanding of portable circular saw kickback hazard and risk of serious injury. Results of the survey suggested that professional users are aware of the term “kickback” and that kickback can be hazardous. The results, which are consistent with interviews with other carpenters injured in kickbacks of portable circular saws conducted during hazard analyses of those incidents, confirm that carpenters have little or no understanding of the operation conditions which cause kickback or the precautions necessary to minimize risk of injury. Product labeling and literature were found to contribute to user confusion.

False

True

False

233

The syntax of pictorial instructions5

Szlichcinsk, K.P.

Describing an action and co-coordinating representational and non-representational elements to express an idea are two of the most important tasks facing the designer of pictorial instructions. Previous attempts to describe a syntax for the organization of graphic materials are discussed. An experiment in which subjects drew their own pictorial instructions showed how people represent actions pictorially, the syntactic categories of elements with which they operate, and the variety of syntactic forms which can be used to express a pictorial instruction. Care must be taken, however, in generalizing conclusion from the production exercise to the design of easily comprehensible instructions.

False

True

False

234

Risk Perception of Common Consumer Products: Judgments of Accident Frequency and Precautionary Intent

Wogalter, Michael S.

Brems, Douglas J.

Martin, Elaine G.

This research examined people’s accuracy in judging the risk of common consumer products. In two experiments, participants estimated the frequency of product-related injuries at a quick pace, slow pace, and following lengthy analysis of accident scenarios. Participants’ estimates of injury were then compared to objective injury rates complied by the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. The results showed that participants were able to assess relative levels of risk quickly and accuracy, but additional time and analysis had no effect on estimation accuracy. Perceived injury severity was strongly related to both participant’s risk estimates and their precautionary intent ratings, but no relationship was found between precautionary intent and the objective risk data. The practical importance of precautionary intent over risk perception is discussed. Implications for product warnings and safety education programs are described.

Journal of Safety Research Vol.24, pp.97-106,1993

1993

False

235

Perceptions of Consumer Products: Hazardousness and Warning Expectations

Wogalter, Michael S.

Desaulniers, David R.

Brelsford, John W.

This research examines several characteristics of consumer products that influence warning communication. Seventy-two generically-named products were rated according to perceived hazardousness, familiarity, and several other measures: 1) willingness to read warnings, 2) need for warnings, 3) location of warnings, and 4) appearance of products with warnings. The results indicate that reported willingness to read warnings is strongly and positively related to the perceived hazardousness of the product. Though product familiarity is significantly related to willingness to read warnings, it provides little predictive value beyond hazardousness. Additional analyses showed, the more hazardous the product: 1) the greater the need for warnings, 2) the closer to the product one expects to find a warning, and 3) the less warnings detract from the appearance of such products. Implications of these results are discussed with regard to applications for warning design.

Human Factors Perspective on Warnings

False

True

False

236

Effects of Warning Signal Words on Consumer-Product hazard Perceptions

Wogalter, Michael S.

Jarrard, Stephen W.

Simpson, S. Noel

This experiment investigate the influence of warning signal words and a signal icon on perceptions of hazard for consumer products. Under the pretext of a marketing research study, 90 high school and college students rated product labels on variables such as product familiarity, frequency of use, and perceived hazard. Sixteen labels from actual household products were used and stored on a computer. Nine of the products labels were used to carry the nine signal word conditions. Five conditions presented the signal words NOTE,CAUTION,WARNING,DANGER, and LETHAL together with a brief warning message. In two other conditions a signal icon (exclamation point surround by a triangle) was presented together with the terms DANGER and LETHAL. The final two conditions were controls, one had a warning message but had no signal word, and the other had no warning message or signal word. Seven product labels were “filters” that never contained a warning. Results showed that the presence of a signal word increased perceived hazard compared to its absence. Between extreme terms (e.g. NOTE and DANGER), significant differences were noted, but not between terms usually recommended in warning design guidelines. The presence of the signal icon had no significant effect on hazard perception. Implications of the results and the value of the research methodology for future warnings’ investigations are discussed.

Human Factors Perspective on Warnings

False

True

False

high school and undergraduate

237

Measuring the Conspicuity of Routing Signs in Public Environments

Zwaga, Harm J,G,

The conspicuity of routing signs was measured as the number of signs located in real-world scenes. Color slides were used for stimulus presentation. A first series of experiments strongly suggested that the performance of the subjects depended on number, size, location and color of advertisements in the environments where the routing signs were displayed. These aspects of the environments were not systematically varied, however. In a second series of experiments, advertisements systematically varying in number add size were added to a scene. The locating of routing signs deteriorated with increasing number and size of the advertisements.

Human Factors 28th -1984

1984

False

True

False

True

False

238

The New Alcohol Warning Labels: how Noticeable Are They?

Godfrey, Sandra S.

Laughery, Kenneth R.

Young, Stephen L.

Vaubel, Kent P.

Brelsford, John W.

Keith A. Laughery

Elizabeth Horn

An experiment was conduced to assess the effect of various existing warning design factors on the noticeability of warnings on alcoholic beverage containers. One-hundred containers, 50 with warnings and 50 without, were used as stimuli and the time required to determine whether or not a warning was present was recorded. The results indicate that warnings on the front label were found more quickly than warnings appearing in any other location. Also, warnings printed horizontally were found more quickly than warning printed vertically. A regression analysis found that features of the signal word/phase (“Government Warning”), as well as the amount of “noise” or clutter on the surrounding label, significantly influenced warning detection times. Thus, some of the design features currently used were shown to have an effect on noticeability of warning information. It is suggested that proper manipulation of these features could make the mandated warning more noticeable.

Human factors Perspective of Warnings

False

True

False

True

239

Effectiveness of Warning Signs: Gender and Familiarity Effects

Goldhaber, Gerald M.

deTurck, Mark A.

Three NO DIVING signs were placed in conspicuous locations by a pool in a Buffalo suburban high school for a period of one month. A comparable suburban high school served as a control – no sign was placed by the swimming pool. Over 300 students at both schools completed a questionnaire after the one month testing period. Results indicated that males were more likely than females to recall seeing the warnings. However, males were more likely than females to dive into the shallow end of their school’s pool, especially in the school where the NO DIVING sign was present. Moreover, it was argued that students with a history of : I) diving into the shallow end of the pool, or 2) diving into above ground pools, or 3) participating on the swimming team would be more likely than students without this history to dive into the shallow end of their school’s pool than students without this history. It was concluded that pool owners should be more responsible for communicating warnings face-to-face with people who use their pools. By including oral communication as a mode for communicating warnings, awareness of hazards and perceived risk can be determined through immediate feedback. Warning consumers about the hazards of a product is a communication process. At a minimum, to be effective, a warning must provide a consumer with the information he/she needs to know so as to be able to use a product safely. Because consumers may be unfamiliar with a product, they may be uncertain about how to use it properly. It is this uncertainty that must be reduced as efficiently as possible by a warning message. Unfortunately, consumers differ with respect to their degree of familiarity or experience with products. As a result, it is almost impossible to design a warning that is tailored to the large number of individual differences identified by social science researchers. The purpose of the current study is to determine the effectiveness of a warning message when male and female consumers have different levels of experience with a product.

Journal of Products Liability, Vol.II, pp.271-284 (1988)

1988

False

True

False

high school

240

Effectiveness of Warning Signs “Familiarity Effects”

Goldhaber, Gerald M.

deTurck, Mark A.

Three NO DIVING signs were placed in conspicuous locations by a pool in a Buffalo suburban middle school for a period of 1 month. A comparable suburban middle school served as a control – no sign was placed by the swimming pool. Over 500 students at both schools completed a questionnaire after the 1 month testing period. It was hypothesized that students would not recall seeing the NO DIVING signs unless they were prompted to think about it. It was also predicted that the NO DIVING signs would not affect 1) students’ perceptions of danger associated with diving into the shallow end of the pool and 2) the likelihood that students would dive into the shallow end of the pool. Moreover, it was argued that students with a history of 1) diving into the shallow end of the pool , 2) diving into aboveground pools, or 3) participating on the swimming team would be more likely than students without this history to dive into the shallow end of the pool. Results confirmed all hypotheses. It was concluded that pool owners should be more responsible for communicating warnings face-to-face with people who use their pools. By including oral communication as a mode for communicating warnings, awareness of hazards and perceived risk is enhanced.

False

True

False

middle school

241

Early impacts of alcoholic beverage warning labels: national study findings relevant to drinking and driving behavior

Greenfield, Thomas K.

Kaskutas, Lee A.

After November, 1989 Federal law required a standard health warning label on all alcoholic beverage containers sold for consumption in the U.S. Results are reported from a cross-sectional household telephone interview survey of adults, occurring approximately 6 months after implementation of the warning labels (N=2000). Implications for health warnings with respect to information processing theory, the Health belief Model, and other theories relevant to precaution adoption are briefly reviewed and two derivative hypotheses are tested using log-linear analysis. Relationships between various personal characteristics and a) seeing the label and b) recalling the driving impairment message are examined for consistency with theoretical expectations. We also examine associations between messages recall, drinking style, and two precautionary behaviors undertaken to avoid drinking and driving. Adjusting for apparent false positives, approximately a quarter of the sample have noticed the label 6 months after its introduction: 16% recalled the specific driving impairment message. As hypothesized, exposure to the warning was predicted primarily by consumption pattern but also was associated with a personal salience factor, that is, ever having drunk alcohol so as to be at risk when driving. About a quarter of the heavy drinkers (5 drinks or more occasion sometime and drinking at least weekly) who ever drank and drove saw the specific warning. Of two self-regulation strategies – limiting driving after drinking and limiting drinking when about to drive – the latter was the more prevalent. Both strategies were reported more by those who were heavy drinkers, those recalling the driving impairment message, and those perceiving driving after drinking to be very dangerous, than by other individuals.

False

True

False

242

The Positioning of Type on Maps: The Effect of Surrounding Material on World Recognition Time

Noyes, Liza

Two visual search experiments, one of which measured eye movements, show that material close to words on a map-like display has a proximity effect which prolongs the word recognition time. This effect is particularly pronounced if the material is a) very close to the first letter of the word, and b) of a similar size to the word, or component letters. Possible causes of the effect are discussed and the practical application for maps and other displays considered.

Human Factors

False

True

False

True

False

243

Enhanced Motorcycle Noticeability Through Daytime Use of Visual Signal Warning Devices

Ramsey, Jerry D.

Brinkley, William A.

Several studies were conducted to evaluate commercially available visual signal warning devices as a means of improving the noticeability of motorcycles and riders during daylight conditions. Active lighting systems including revolving lights, prisms, reflectors, and strobes were analyzed. Field data were obtained by mounting a test device on the motorcycle’s front fender and then interviewing motorists who passed the motorcycle as it attempted to enter traffic from a side street intersection. Results indicated only 15 to 25% of motorists noticed the motorcycle without a device and that a small, low intensity device on the fender was of no value in improving conspicuity. Two larger, higher intensity devices were selected for subsequent field study, and noticeability was improved over 300% when using either device.

False

True

False

True

False

244

Partial Attention in Warning Failure: Observations From Accidents

Robinson, Gordon H.

Warnings are a special case of communication in which the receiver is requested to do, or not do, specific acts to increase safety. It has become obvious, in a decade of research, that the design of an effective warning is a substantive design task (Lehto and Miller, 1986 and Robinson, 1986). It is also unfortunately clear that most warnings are still designed by people with little or no training in the underlying sciences or, for that matter in good engineering practice. Part of this problem seems to be, that in spite of substantial advances in the science of warning communication (Ayers et al 1989 , Dejoy 1989, Friedman 1988, Leonard et al 1989)and Wogalter et al 1987 and 1989, as examples ) the actual design task is still considered trivial. Behind this attitude is a lack of appreciation of the complexity of the human information processing involved in warning communication and ,of greater importance the failure to see the linkage between understanding this processing and improvements in design effectiveness (Warnings here will be the passive, visual “decal” type and no distinction will be made between warnings and safety instructions that are often intermixed with warnings. The word “machine” will be used for the technical system, product or mechanism that the warnings are designed to refer to.)

Human Factors Society 35th – 1991

False

True

False

245

Sign Registration in Daytime and Nighttime Driving

Shinar, David

Drivers were stopped 200 m after passing a warning sign and were tested for recall and recognition of the sign. It was predicted that at night, when the view of the road ahead is severely restricted, sign registration levels would be higher than during the day, when drivers can obtain most of their information directly from their view of the road ahead. The results supported this hypothesis; sign recall levels ranged from 3 to 6% during the day and from 14 to 18% at night. Other variables that were measured (sign content, roadway environments, and subjective levels of fatigue and boredom) had no significant effects on sign registration.

Human factors 1983, 25(1), 117-122

1983

False

True

False

246

Per250ception of Highway Traffic Signs and Motivation

Summala, Heikki

Naatanen, Risto

Nine subjects were instructed to drive as safely as possible over a highway route of 257 kilometers and to name all the traffic signs they saw along the route. These subjects were able to report approximately 97% of the signs on the entire route and virtually all of the signs in the non-urban, non-intersection areas, while driving safely and committing no traffic violations. It was concluded that earlier experimental results pointing to the relative inefficiency of highway traffic signs are probably primarily due to the deficient motivation of drivers to utilize them.

False

True

False

247

The Influence of Location and Pictorials on Behavioral Compliance to Warnings

Wogalter, Michael S.

Kalsher, Michael J.

Racicot, Bernadette M.

The efficacy of two warning-related factors to produce cautionary behavior in a chemistry laboratory task was examined. Experiment 1 compared the effects of a posted-sign warning and a within-instruction warning on behavior compliance. The results showed that a warning embedded in a set of task instructions produced significantly greater compliance (the wearing of protective gear) than a similar, larger warning posted as a sign nearby. Experiment 2 reexamined the effect of location effect of Experiment 1. No influence of pictorials was noted, although there was a nonsignificant increase in compliance when pictorial were added to the within-instruction warning. The results indicate that warning placement is important for eliciting behavioral compliance to safety messages. Explanations such as differences in field of view and perceived relevance are discussed.

Human Factors Perspectives on Warning

True

False

True

False

True

False

True

False

248

Increasing the Noticeability of Warnings : Effects of Pictorial, Color, Signal Icon and Border

Young, Stephen L.

Because of the importance of noticeability on subsequent comprehension and compliance to warnings, guidelines suggest increasing the salience or conspicuity of warnings. Surprisingly, only a small amount of research has examined different methods of increasing the noticeability of warnings. Therefore, the current research orthogonally manipulated four salience variables (pictorial, color, signal icon and border) to determine their effect on noticeability of warning information. Subjects viewed 96 simulated alcohol labels on a computer, half with a warning and half without. Subjects indicated whether or not a warning was on the label and response latencies were recorded. The results showed that warnings containing a pictorial, color or an icon had significantly faster response times than warnings without them. However, the addition of a border did not improve response times. More detailed analyses showed interactions between the four silence manipulations. Theses results demonstrate that pictorials, color and icons can enhance the noticeability of warning information. Moreover, it is clear that these salience manipulations interact with each other and that they should not be used indiscriminately without adequate knowledge of these interactions.

True

False

True

False

True

False

True

False

True

249

Consumer Evaluation of Camera Symbols

Aurelio, David N.

Crist, Brian

The goals of this research were to investigate how well 20 camera symbols communicated their intended meanings, and to determine the common characteristics of well-understood symbols which could be incorporated into other symbols. Overall, one can conclude that the best symbols did indeed have similar characteristics. These characteristics were grouped into seven fundamental factors which should be considered when designing symbols.

Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting – 1990

1990

False

True

False

male and female

250

An Experimental Comparison of Text and Symbols for in-car reconfigurable displays

Baber, C.

Wanking, J.

As cars become more sophisticated, there is a corresponding increase in the range of information which needs to be presented to drivers. This increased information load is beyond the scope of conventional technology; space requirements on the dashboard limit the number of displays which can be employed. The study reported in this paper is based on the premise that centralized information presentation could be employed for in-car warning systems. Forty subjects were tested on a computer-based task, in which they had to rate the urgency of displayed information. The information was presented in one of four formats: symbols only, symbols plus title, symbols plus action, or symbol, title and action. Results show that the most effective type of display for urgency rating was symbol plus action, and that symbol, title and action produced the fastest reaction times. These results are considered in terms of previous research and implications for the design of in-car warnings are discussed.

Applied Ergonomics 1992 ,23(4), 255-262

1992

False

True

False

male and female

251

The Effects of the Image Factor in Televised Advertising on Consumer Perception

Cohen, David M.

Cohen, H. Harvey

A review of the literature suggests that televised commercials display a definite image in presenting their product, and that airing of the commercial will have a predictable effect on consumer perception of the product advertised. The present study involved a questionnaire in which 140 subjects were asked to design a commercial using directed choices for one of four motor vehicle types: a mini-van, a pickup truck, a sports car or a luxury car, The hypothesis was that most subjects would design a commercial that reflected a definite image which would vary amongst vehicle types. Though the results did not support the original hypothesis in all respects, there were patterns of similarity in the responses which led to modification of the hypothesis, that being that image does not dictate the way motor vehicles in the commercials are perceived, but rater it directs the way they are perceived in accordance with viewers’ varying needs and desires.

Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting 1992

1992

False

252

An Investigation of Preferred Shapes for Warning Labels

Riley, Michael W.

Cochran, David J.

Ballard, John L.

An examination was made of 19 different geometric shapes of warning labels, using the method of paired comparisons. Sixty-six college students viewed slides of all pairs of the shapes and each time selected the shape that was the preferred indicator of warning. An ordinal scaling method was used to evaluate the differences among the shapes. Results show that the triangle on its vertex was the preferred warning indicator among the shapes tested.

Human Factors 1982, 24(6), 737-742

1982

False

True

False

college

253

A Human Performance Evaluation of Graphic Symbol-Design Features

Sametq, Michael G.

16 Subjects learned each of two tactical display symbol sets (conventional symbols and iconic symbols) in turn and were then shown a series of graphic displays containing various symbol configurations. For each display, the subject was asked questions corresponding to different behavioral process relating to symbol use (identification, search, comparison, pattern recognition). The results indicated that : a) conventional symbols yield faster pattern-recognition performance than iconic symbols, and iconic symbols did not yield faster identification than conventional symbols, and b) the portrayal of additional feature information (through the use of perimeter density of vector projection coding) slowed processing of the core symbol information in four tasks, but certain symbol-design features created less perceptual interference and had greater correspondence with the portrayal of specific tactical concepts than others. The results were discussed in terms of the complexities involved in the selection of symbol design features for use in graphic tactical displays.

Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1982 ,54,1303-1310

1982

False

True

False

True

False

20-30

male and female

254

The Development and Evaluation of Pictographic Symbols

Sloan, Gary

Eshelman, Paul

The premise adopted in this study is that representatives of the audience for whom a symbol is intended should be participants in its evolution as well as subjects in its evaluation. Several situations in need of product misuse warnings were supplied by a manufacturer of ovenware products. Symbol design possibilities were first generated for each message category and then design input was obtained from a sample of potential product users. New design candidates were developed on the basis of subject recommendations. Study generated symbols proved to be significantly more effective than designs used by the manufacturer for the same message categories as assessed by differences in reaction time and error rate. The relative effectiveness negation sign designs was also evaluated. Differences in both reaction time and subjective ranks of communicativeness suggest that a thin black cross is more effective in conveying negation than a thin black slash, a partial slash or cross, and a contour slash or cross. Significant differences were not found in the extent that the designs interfere with symbol recognition.

Human Factors Society -25th Annual Meeting 1981

1981

False

True

False

True

False

True

False

18-65

male and female

255

Laboratory Visibility Studies of Directional Symbols used for Traffic Control Signals

Smith, G.

Weir, Robyn

Three criteria are used to find the best of eight directional symbols suitable for traffic control signals: visibility when blurred, visibility at low contrast and identification in relation to acceptability. These are used instead of the more conventional field type criteria of recognition distance and reaction time. The results of the three experiments show that : 1. the rank order of performance with different symbols differs with the criterion used. 2) the blur variable, which is a relatively new visibility criterion, has proved successful in differentiating between symbols, and 3. visibility can be better for unconventional symbols than for the more conventional forms.

Ergonomics, 1978 ,vol 21, no4, 247-252

1978

False

True

False

True

False

256

An Evaluation of Written, Graphics, and Voice Messages In Proceduralized Instructions

Stern, Kenneth R.

This study evaluated written messages, graphics, combined text and graphics, and digitized voice messages as a means of communicating proceduralized instructions to a broad range of users. The value of using voice messages as a means of supplementing visually presented information was also tested. The task consisted of making a cash withdrawal from an automated teller machine (ATM) with the aid of guidance and error messages. Results indicated that graphics was inferior to text, combined text and graphics, or voice as the primary means of communicating instructions. Voice, when used to supplement the visually presented error messages, did not provide any performance advantage over visually presented information alone. The voice messages were not liked by the subjects, especially for use in a public application. The results suggest that graphics message should not be used as the sole means of communicating proceduralized instructions. Text and combined text and graphics were found to be acceptable modes of communicating instructions. Voice may also be appropriate, provide that user privacy can be maintained.

Human Factors Society -28th Annual Meetings-1984

1984

False

True

False

True

False

18-68

male and female

257

Visual Search with Embedded Targets: Color and Texture Differences

Bloomfield, John R.

Two embedded target visual search displays were used in three kinds of experiment. One display had a color and the other a monochrome texture background. In each trial of each experiment a single target was presented. First, 28 observers rated the discriminability of five color and four monochrome targets from the color and monochrome backgrounds, respectively. Second, five observers searched the color and six the monochrome display for the appropriate targets and , after practice, there were 60 trials per observer per target. Third, using the five observers who searched the color display and four of the six who searched the monochrome, the extent into the periphery that they could see the appropriate targets when the displays were exposed for 0.3 seconds was measured. Analysis of the data showed that, for the color displays, simple equations, developed for competition search situations, could be used to relate together the three types of measure. The equations were less successful for the monochrome display.

Human Factors, 1979, 21(3), 317-330

1979

False

True

False

True

False

258

Likelihood of Reading Warnings: The effect of fonts and Font Sizes

Braun, Curt C.

Silver, Clayton N.

Legibility of a warning is a major issue in the labeling of various consumer products, and over the counter and prescription drugs. The purpose of the present research was to examine certain variables that are associated with legibility, namely font type, font weight, point size, and point size contrast between the signal word and the main body of the warning. A sample of undergraduate students and elderly people rated 24 Ultra Tide detergent labels for their likelihood to read the warning, the saliency of the warning, and readability of the warning. The results indicated that participants were more likely to read the warning in Helvetica type than in Times and Goudy. Times was more likely to be read than Goudy. Bold type was more likely to be read than Roman type. There was a greater likelihood of reading the warning when the main body was in 10 point size as compared to 8 point size. A 2 point size difference between the signal word and the main body of the warning produced a greater likelihood of reading the warning over a 4 point difference minimizes the importance of the main body of the warning, therefore making only the signal word salient.

Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting – 1992

1992

False

True

False

True

False

undergraduate

259

Tables in text

Burnhill, P.

Young, J.Hartley Margrette

Tables were inserted into a four page article, and subjects were asked to scan the text which was printed in a two-column or a single-column format. The single-column format was scanned significantly faster than the double-column layout, and there were marked reader preferences for the single-column layout.

Applied Ergonomics 1976, 7.1, 13-18

1976

False

True

False

True

False

12-14

secondary school

260

Detection and Reading Distances of retroreflective road signs during night driving

Dahlstedt, S.

Svenson, Ola

The detectability and legibility of road signs of different reflective intensities were studied in night driving conditions. The results indicated that for obtaining optimal detectability and legibility distances, the reflective intensity of a new road sign should be in the range of 4 to 10 mcd/lux. Sqm. For signs in this range it was shown that doubling the are of a sign increased a detection distance of about 600 m by about 150-200m. Opposing headlights on an oncoming car decreased detection distances of 500-900m by about 100m. Finally, it was found that standard signs, with a text 170mm high, permitted reading from a distance of about 115m.

Applied Ergonomics 1977, 8.1, 7

1977

False

True

False

True

False

True

False

22-41

261

Relative Legibility of Upper and Lower Case Letters

Hodge, David C.

Man’s function in many man-machine systems is that of a decision-making and activating link between displays and controls. In these capacities his performance is in part dependent upon the rapid and accurate reception of information from the displays in the system. For this reason it is important that the letters, words, numerals, and symbols used in visual displays be maximally legible.

False

True

False

True

False

16-44

female

262

Attractiveness and Legibility of Various Colors when printed on Cardboard

Konz, S

Chawla, S.

Sathaye, S.

P.Shah

In experiment I, Blue, black, green , purple, red, orange, and yellow letters were tested for legibility and attractiveness on brown and grey cardboard. Legibility and attractiveness were positively correlated. Light, medium and dark shades of blue, black, green and red letters were studied further in Experiment II using a brown cardboard surface. Legibility and attractiveness again were positively correlated. Light black and red had poor legibility while medium green and black had high legibility. Blue was the color voted the most attractive.

Ergonomics, 1972, Vol.15, No.2, 189-194

1972

False

True

False

263

Evaluation of Symbolic Public Information Signs

Mackett-Stout, Janice

Dewar, Robert

In a series of four experiments, symbolic representations of eight public information messages were evaluated in an attempt to identify the relative adequacy of each symbol. Four versions of each message were examined using measures of legibility distance, comprehension, preference, and glance legibility. Significant positive correlations were found among the first three measures. An efficiency index was employed as an overall measure of the effectiveness of individual symbols, and recommendations were made concerning their future use.

Human Factors

False

True

False

male and female

undergraduate

264

Labeling Graphs for Improved Reading Speed

Milroy, R.

Poulto, E. C.

Three methods of labeling graphs were compared: 1. direct labeling on the functions 2. a key inserted on the graph field below the functions 3. a key inserted below the figure in the position of the figure caption In both a separate-groups comparison and in a subsequent within-subjects comparison, direct labeling gave reliably the quickest readings (p<0.01) without loss of accuracy. Reading the labels directly appeared to involve fewer steps and depend less upon short-term memory.

Ergonomics, 1978, vol.21, no.1, 55-61

1978

False

True

False

265

Communication Effectiveness and Format Effects on In-Ad Disclosure of Health warnings

Popper, Edward T.

Murray, Keith B.

This article presents the results of an experimental portfolio test of alternative formats for an in-ad health warning/disclosure for smokeless tobacco. The study manipulated two format components (the size of type used for the health warning and the warning’s background color) and found that neither significantly increased disclosure communication. The data also indicated that the disclosure (which used a health warning federally specified for smokeless tobacco products) failed to communicate the health warning to nearly half of all subjects in spite of forced exposure conditions that were particularly favorable to communication. The implications of these findings on the effectiveness of in-ad health warning are discussed.

False

True

False

266

Legibility problems in printed scientific and technical information

Reynolds, Lindra

In recent years the Graphic Information Research Unit at the Royal College of Art has been examining the effects of poor quality printing and copying on legibility, funded by grants from the British Library Research and Development Department. Two investigations are described in detail here. These are experiments relating to the effects of image quality and show-through on legibility, with some reference to background noise.

Audiovisual Media in Medicine 1979, 2, 67-70

1979

False

True

False

267

Visibility and Legibility of exit signs Part II: Experimental results

Schooley, L.C.

Reagan, J.A.

Part I presented an analytical assessment of the factors involved in visibility and legibility of exit signs in commercial buildings. As noted in that article, the available literature on this important topic is surprisingly sparse, there are a number of conflicts in existing standards, and it appears that many of the required illumination levels are unnecessarily high. This suggests the possibility of significant energy savings if more meaningful specification requirements for exit signs can be established and justified. This paper presents experimental verification of the analytical results.

False

268

Effect of Driver’s Age on Nighttime Legibility of Highway Signs

Sivak, Michael

Olson, Paul L.

Pastalan, Leon A.

A field investigation of the effect of driver’s age on nighttime legibility of highway signs was performed. Subjects of two age groups (under 25 and over 61 years of age) participated. The results indicate that legibility distances for the older subjects were 65 to 77% of those for the younger subjects with equal high-luminance visual acuity. This finding implied that older drivers are likely to have less distance (and thus less time) in which to act on the information transmitted by highway signs. Consequently, it is argued that (1) legibility standards for highway signs should not be based exclusively on data obtained from young observers and (2) standard (high-luminance) acuity tests have questionable relevance to nighttime visual performance.

Human Factors, 1981, 23(1), 59-64

1981

False

<25 and >61

269

The Sensitivity of Response Measures of Alphanumeric Legibility to Variations in Dot Matrix Display Parameters

Snyder, Harry L.

Taylor, Gregory B.

This research evaluated the sensitivity of four observer response measures to variations in the character size and dot luminance of a dot matrix display. Specifically, the research determined the sensitivity of recognition accuracy, response time, tachistoscopic recognition accuracy, and threshold visibility. Alphanumeric characters were presented to six subjects in noncontextual form on a variable-parameter CRT display programmed and driven by a minicomputer. Recognition accuracy (percent correct response) was found to be the response measure that is most sensitive to the display parameters of character size and dot luminance. Character size, dot luminance, and viewing distance proved to have consistent and significant effects at viewing distances greater than 1.52 m. At lesser viewing distances, these parameter had little effect. The results suggest that there is no major difference between the display requirements for computer-generated dot matrix displays versus those for conventional CRT displays.

Human Factors, 1979, 21(4), 457-471

1979

False

True

False

True

False

270

Influence of Color on Legibility of Copy

Sumner, F.C.

The purpose of the work here reported was threefold: firstly, to verify early experimental results on legibility of colored letters on colored backgrounds, the origin of which is somewhat shrouded in hearsay but which Luckiesh traces as far back as a quotation from Le Courrier du Liyre, which was printed in Scientific American Supplement, Feb.2, 1913. These results will be for convenience sake referred to hereafter as those of Luckiesh.

False

True

False

271

On the Legibility of Segmented Numerals

Van Nes, Floris L.

Bouma, Herman

Research on the legibility of many new symbol configurations has not kept pace with their increasing use. Such novel configurations appear, for instance, in segmented numerals. This paper reports experiments on their discriminability. Perceptual confusions between members of pairs of seven-segment numerals decreased as these pairs differed in more line segments. Not all segments are equally important for perception. Their perceptive weight can be deduced from their respective contribution to the differences in shape and corresponds to the actually occurring confusions between numeral pairs. These results led to suggestions for improved numerals: a simplified configuration for 6 and 9, another choice of vertical segments for 1, and an accentuation of important segments by broadening or lengthening them somewhat. First, the improvements aim at increasing the discriminability of the numerals, second, at increasing their acceptability; i.e., resemblance to the traditional numeral shapes plays a role.

Human Factors ,1980, 22(4), 463-474

1980

False

True

False

273

Testing the Effects of Label Deterioration on the Legibility and Comprehensibility of Warnings

Dorris, Nathan T.

Davis, Jerry

The authors tested the ability of 50 undergraduates to read real-world warning labels on forest service equipment as depicted in photographs. The photographs had each been rated by three different observers on a 5 point ordinal scale. Comprehension by the undergraduates of warning labels which had been rated as "slightly worn" or "new" was excellent. Comprehension of signal words and pictographs in a warnings rated as extremely or completely worn was very poor. Comprehension of signal words and pictographs in warnings rated as moderately worn was approximately 50%. The study validated the wear scale for warnings.

Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

2003

False

True

False

True

False

True

False

college students